# JONES LANG LASALLE INC (JLL) FY 2023 MD&A

Verbatim Item 7 Management's Discussion and Analysis from JONES LANG LASALLE INC's 10-K for fiscal year 2023.

SEC filing source: https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1037976/000103797624000010/jll-20231231.htm
Accession: 0001037976-24-000010
Filing date: 2024-02-27
Report date: 2023-12-31
Extracted structurally from real Item 7 body heading to real Item 7A/8 boundary. Published MD&A gate trimmed front/tail over-capture.
Confidence: high

Company profile: /company/JLL/
All MD&A years: /company/JLL/mda/
Previous year: /company/JLL/mda/fy2022/ (FY 2022)
Next year: /company/JLL/mda/fy2024/ (FY 2024)

ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT'S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following discussion and analysis contains certain forward-looking statements generally identified by the words: anticipates, believes, estimates, expects, forecasts, plans, intends and other similar expressions. Such forward-looking statements involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties, and other factors that may cause our actual results, performance, achievements, plans, and objectives to be materially different from any future results, performance, achievements, plans, and objectives expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. See the Cautionary Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements after Part IV, Item 15. Exhibits and Financial Statement Schedules.

We present our Management's Discussion and Analysis in the following sections:

(1)    A summary of our critical accounting policies and estimates;

(2)    Certain items affecting the comparability of results;

(3)    Certain market and other risks we face;

(4)    The results of our operations, first on a consolidated basis and then for each of our business segments; and

(5)    Liquidity and capital resources.

In this Item, we discuss results for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 and the comparison between these years. Discussions of results for the year ended December 31, 2021 and comparisons between 2022 and 2021 results can be found in Item 7. "Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2022.

SUMMARY OF CRITICAL ACCOUNTING POLICIES AND ESTIMATES

An understanding of our accounting policies is necessary for a complete analysis of our results, financial position, liquidity and trends. The preparation of our financial statements requires management to make certain critical accounting estimates and judgments that impact (i) the stated amount of assets and liabilities, (ii) disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities as of the date of the financial statements and (iii) the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting periods. These accounting estimates are based on management's judgment. We consider them to be critical because of their significance to the financial statements and the possibility future events may differ from current judgments, or that the use of different assumptions could result in materially different estimates. We review these estimates on a periodic basis to ensure reasonableness. Although actual amounts may differ from such estimated amounts, we believe such differences are not likely to be material. For additional detail regarding our critical accounting policies and estimates discussed below, see Note 2, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, of the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8.

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Revenue Recognition

We earn revenue from the following services (segments are bolded).

•Markets Advisory

◦Leasing

◦Property Management

◦Advisory, Consulting and Other

•Capital Markets

◦Investment Sales, Debt/Equity Advisory and Other

◦Loan Servicing

◦Value and Risk Advisory

•Work Dynamics

◦Workplace Management

◦Project Management

◦Portfolio Services and Other

•JLL Technologies

•LaSalle

Our services are generally earned and billed in the form of transaction commissions, advisory and management fees, and incentive fees. Some of the contractual terms related to the services we provide, and thus the revenue we recognize, can be complex, requiring us to make judgments about our performance obligations and the timing and extent of revenue to recognize. In addition, a significant portion of our revenue represents the reimbursement of costs we incur on behalf of clients.

Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets

Consistent with the services nature of the businesses we have acquired, the largest asset on the Consolidated Balance Sheets is goodwill. We do not amortize goodwill; instead, we evaluate goodwill for impairment at least annually, or as events or changes in circumstances indicate the carrying value may be impaired. We reassessed our reporting units as of January 1, 2022, the effective date of our current organizational structure, and reassigned goodwill to reflect our new segment structure using a relative fair value allocation approach.

In addition, we may record intangible assets as a result of acquisitions, which are primarily composed of customer relationships, management contracts and customer backlog, and are amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful lives. We generally use the income approach to determine fair value, which requires management to make significant estimates and assumptions. These estimates and assumptions primarily include discount rates, terminal growth rates, forecasts of revenue, operating income and capital expenditures. The discount rates reflect the risk factors, from the perspective of a market participant, associated with forecasts of cash flows. In addition, we establish an intangible upon closing on the sale of a mortgage loan we originated, concurrent with the retention of its servicing rights and amortize the intangible over the estimated period net servicing income is projected to be received.

Although we believe our intangible asset estimates of fair value are reasonable, actual financial results could differ from those estimates due to the inherent uncertainty involved in making such estimates. Changes in assumptions concerning future financial results or other underlying assumptions could have a significant impact on the determination of the fair value of the identified intangible assets acquired. Judgment is also required in determining the useful life of a finite-lived intangible asset. We evaluate our identified intangibles for impairment at least annually, or as events or changes in circumstances indicate the carrying value may be impaired.

Investments

Substantially all of our investments are grouped within one of the following two categories.

First, we invest in certain real estate ventures that primarily own and operate commercial real estate, historically through co-investments in funds that LaSalle establishes in the ordinary course of business for its clients. These investments include non-controlling ownership interests generally ranging from less than 1% to 10% of the respective ventures. We account for these investments at fair value or under the equity method of accounting.

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Second, JLL Technologies invests in proptech funds and early to mid-stage companies to improve our strategic position within the real estate technology landscape, including investments through the JLL Spark Global Ventures Funds. We account for these investments at fair value.

Where applicable, we estimate fair value of our investments using the net asset value ("NAV") per share (or its equivalent) our investees provide. Critical inputs to NAV estimates include valuations of the underlying real estate assets and borrowings, which incorporate investment-specific assumptions such as discount rates, capitalization rates, rental and expense growth rates, and asset-specific market borrowing rates. In circumstances where the NAV provided by the investee has a reporting date different than ours or when the NAV is not calculated consistent with U.S. GAAP measurement principles, we adjust the NAV accordingly.

For JLL Technologies investments in proptech companies, we primarily estimate the fair value based on the per-share pricing. Subsequent funding rounds or changes in the companies' business strategy/outlook are indicators of a change in fair value. The fair value of certain investments is estimated using significant unobservable inputs which requires judgment due to the absence of market data. In determining the estimated fair value of these investments, we utilize appropriate valuation techniques including discounted cash flow analyses, scorecard method, Black-Scholes models and other methods as appropriate. Key inputs include projected cash flows, discount rates, peer group multiples and volatility.

For all investments reported at fair value, other than such investments where the measurement alternative has been elected, our investment is increased or decreased each reporting period by the difference between the fair value of the investment and the carrying value as of the balance sheet date. We reflect these fair value adjustments as gains or losses on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income within Equity earnings.

Income Taxes

We account for income taxes under the asset and liability method. We recognize deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences attributable to (i) differences between the consolidated financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases and (ii) operating loss and tax credit carryforwards. We measure deferred tax assets and liabilities using the enacted tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which we expect those temporary differences to be recovered or settled. We recognize into income the effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities of a change in tax rates in the period including the enactment date.

Because of the global and cross-border nature of our business, our corporate tax position is complex. We generally provide for taxes in each tax jurisdiction in which we operate based on local tax regulations and rules. Such taxes are provided on pre-tax earnings and include the provision for taxes on substantively all differences between financial statement amounts and amounts used in tax returns, excluding certain non-deductible items and permanent differences.

Our global effective tax rate is sensitive to the complexity of our operations as well as to changes in the mix of our geographic profitability. We evaluate our estimated effective tax rate on a quarterly basis to reflect forecast changes in our geographic mix of income and legislative actions on statutory tax rates.

Based on our historical experience and future business plans, we do not expect to repatriate our foreign source earnings to the U.S. As of December 31, 2023, we have therefore not provided for withholding tax, dividend distribution tax, capital gains taxes, or other taxes which could arise upon such distribution. We believe our policy of permanently reinvesting earnings of foreign subsidiaries does not significantly impact our liquidity.

We have established valuation allowances against deferred tax assets where expected future taxable income does not support their realization on a more-likely-than-not basis. We formally assess the likelihood of being able to utilize current tax losses in the future on a country-by-country basis, commensurate with the determination of each quarter’s income tax provision. We establish or increase valuation allowances upon specific indications the carrying value of a tax asset may not be recoverable. Alternatively, we reduce valuation allowances upon (i) specific indications the carrying value of the related tax asset is more-likely-than-not recoverable or (ii) the implementation of tax planning strategies which allow an asset we previously determined to be not realizable to be viewed as realizable.

Estimations and judgments relevant to the determination of tax expense, assets, and liabilities require analysis of the tax environment and the future profitability, for tax purposes, of local statutory legal entities rather than business segments. Our statutory legal entity structure generally does not mirror the way we organize, manage, and report our business operations.

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For example, the same legal entity may include Capital Markets, Work Dynamics and Markets Advisory businesses in a particular country.

In situations where we believe that there may be uncertainty with respect to the recognition of tax benefits, we provide reserves for those benefits. Changes to the amounts of our unrecognized tax benefits may occur as the result of ongoing operations, the outcomes of audits or other examinations by tax authorities, or the passing of statutes of limitations. We do not expect changes to our unrecognized tax benefits to have a significant impact on net income, the financial position, or the cash flows of JLL. We do not believe we have material tax positions for which the ultimate deductibility is highly certain but for which there is uncertainty about the timing of such deductibility.

NEW ACCOUNTING STANDARDS

Refer to Note 2, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies of the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8.

ITEMS AFFECTING COMPARABILITY

Macroeconomic Conditions

Our results of operations and the variability of these results are significantly influenced by (i) macroeconomic trends, (ii) the geopolitical environment, (iii) the global and regional real estate markets and (iv) the financial and credit markets. These macroeconomic and other conditions have had, and we expect will continue to have, a significant impact on the variability of our results of operations.

Acquisitions and Dispositions

The timing of acquisitions may impact the comparability of our results on a year-over-year basis. Our results include incremental revenues and expenses following the completion date of an acquisition. Relating to dispositions, comparable results will include the revenues and expenses of recent dispositions and results may also include gains (losses) on the disposition. In addition, there is generally an initial adverse impact on net income from an acquisition as a result of pre-acquisition due diligence expenditures, transaction/deal costs and post-acquisition integration costs, such as fees from third-party advisors engaged to assist with onboarding and process alignment, retention and severance expense, early lease termination costs, and other integration expenses. For dispositions, we may also incur such incremental costs during the disposition process and these costs could have an adverse impact on net income.

Transaction-Based Revenues and Equity Earnings

Transaction-based revenues are impacted by the size and timing of our clients' transactions. Such revenues include investment sales and other capital markets activities, agency and tenant representation leasing transactions, incentive fees, and other services/offerings, increase the variability of the revenue we earn. Specifically for LaSalle, the magnitude and timing of recognition of incentive fees are driven by one or a combination of the following: changes in valuations of the underlying investments; dispositions of managed assets; and the contractual measurement periods with clients. The timing and the magnitude of transaction-based revenues can vary significantly from year to year and quarter to quarter, and also vary geographically.

Equity earnings may vary substantially from period to period for a variety of reasons, including as a result of (i) valuation increases (decreases) on investments reported at fair value, (ii) gains (losses) on asset dispositions and (iii) impairment charges. The timing of recognition of these items may impact comparability between quarters, in any one year, or compared to a prior year.

The comparability of these items can be seen in Note 3, Business Segments, of the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, and is discussed further in Segment Operating Results included herein.

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Foreign Currency

We conduct business using a variety of currencies, but we report our results in U.S. dollars. As a result, the volatility of currencies against the U.S. dollar may positively or negatively impact our results. This volatility can make it more difficult to perform period-to-period comparisons of the reported U.S. dollar results of operations because such results may indicate a rate of growth or decline that might not have been consistent with the real underlying rate of growth or decline in the local operations. Consequently, we provide information about the impact of foreign currencies in the period-to-period comparisons of the reported results of operations in our discussion and analysis of financial condition in the Results of Operations section below.

MARKET RISKS

Market Risk

The principal market risks we face due to the risk of loss arising from adverse changes in market rates and prices are:

•Interest rates on our unsecured credit facility (the "Facility"); and

•Foreign exchange risks.

In the normal course of business, we manage these risks through a variety of strategies, including hedging transactions using various derivative financial instruments such as foreign currency forward contracts. We enter into derivative instruments that are short-term in duration with high credit-quality counterparties and diversify our positions across such counterparties in order to reduce our exposure to credit losses. We do not enter into derivative transactions for trading or speculative purposes.

Interest Rates

We centrally manage our debt, considering investment opportunities and risks, tax consequences, and overall financing strategies. Our overall interest rate risk management objectives are to limit the impact of interest rate changes on earnings and cash flows and to lower our overall borrowing costs. We are primarily exposed to interest rate risk on our Facility, which had a maximum borrowing capacity of $3.30 billion as of December 31, 2023. The Facility consists of revolving credit available for working capital, investments, capital expenditures and acquisitions. We had $610.6 million of outstanding borrowings, net of debt issuance costs, under the Facility as of December 31, 2023. The Facility bears a variable rate of interest that fluctuates based on market rates.

In November 2023, we issued and sold $400.0 million of senior unsecured notes due December 2028 which bear interest at a fixed annual rate of 6.875%. Our €350.0 million face value of Euro Notes is split between €175.0 million due in June 2027 and €175.0 million due in June 2029, bearing interest at fixed annual rates of 1.96% and 2.21%, respectively. The issuance of the senior notes and Euro Notes at fixed interest rates has helped to limit our exposure to future movements in interest rates.

We assess interest rate sensitivity to estimate the potential effect of rising interest rates on our variable rate debt. If interest rates were 50 basis points higher during 2023, Interest expense, net of interest income, would have been $9.4 million higher.

Foreign Exchange

Foreign exchange risk is the risk we will incur economic losses due to adverse changes in foreign currency exchange rates. Our revenue from outside of the U.S. approximated 41% of our total revenue for both 2023 and 2022, as outlined in the table below. Operating in international markets means we are exposed to movements in foreign exchange rates, most significantly the British pound and the euro.

We mitigate our foreign currency exchange risk principally by (i) establishing local operations in the markets we serve and (ii) invoicing customers in the same currency as the source of the costs. The impact of translating expenses incurred in foreign currencies into U.S. dollars reduces the impact of translating revenue earned in foreign currencies into U.S. dollars. In addition, British pound and Singapore dollar expenses incurred as a result of our regional headquarters being located in London and Singapore, respectively, act as ongoing partial operational hedges against our translation exposures to those currencies.

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We enter into forward foreign currency exchange contracts to manage currency risks associated with intercompany loan balances. Generally, the maturity of these contracts is less than 60 days. As of December 31, 2023, we had forward exchange contracts in effect with a gross notional value of $2.07 billion ($1.21 billion on a net basis). This corresponding net carrying gain is generally offset by a carrying loss in associated intercompany loans.

Although we operate globally, we report our results in U.S. dollars. As a result, the strengthening or weakening of the U.S. dollar in relation to currencies we are exposed to may positively or negatively impact our reported results. The following table sets forth the revenue derived from our most significant currencies.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["($ in millions)","2023","% of Total","","2022","% of Total"],["United States dollar","$","12,258.9","","59.0","%","","$","12,375.9","","59.3","%"],["British pound","1,640.0","","7.9","","","1,575.6","","7.6"],["Euro","1,436.1","","6.9","","","1,535.6","","7.4"],["Australian dollar","1,036.9","","5.0","","","1,183.0","","5.7"],["Indian rupee","661.4","","3.2","","","591.0","","2.8"],["Canadian dollar","613.8","","3.0","","","593.8","","2.8"],["Hong Kong dollar","544.8","","2.6","","","532.3","","2.6"],["Chinese yuan","480.9","","2.3","","","506.0","","2.4"],["Singapore dollar","425.4","","2.0","","","368.4","","1.8"],["Japanese yen","286.6","","1.4","","","233.8","","1.1"],["Other currencies","1,376.0","","6.7","","","1,366.7","","6.5"],["Total revenue","$","20,760.8","","100.0","%","","$","20,862.1","","100.0","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Had British pound-to-U.S. dollar exchange rates been 10% higher throughout the course of 2023, we estimate our reported operating income would have increased by $2.2 million. Had euro-to-U.S. dollar exchange rates been 10% higher throughout the course of 2023, we estimate our reported operating income would have decreased by $0.3 million. These hypothetical calculations estimate the impact of translating results into U.S. dollars and do not include an estimate of the impact a 10% increase in the U.S. dollar against other currencies would have on our foreign operations.

Seasonality

Historically, we have reported a relatively smaller revenue and profit in the first quarter with both measures increasing during each of the following three quarters. This is a result of a general focus in the real estate industry on completing or documenting transactions by calendar year end and the fact that certain expenses are constant throughout the year. Our seasonality excludes the recognition of investment-generated performance fees and realized and unrealized investment equity earnings and losses. Specifically, we recognize incentives fees when assets are sold or as a result of valuation increases in the portfolio, the timing of which may not be predictable or recurring. In addition, investment equity gains and losses are primarily dependent on underlying valuations, and the direction and magnitude of changes to such valuations are not predictable. Non-variable operating expenses, which we treat as expenses when incurred during the year, are relatively constant on a quarterly basis. Other factors may affect seasonality. For example, we experienced disruption to our historical seasonality trends due to rising interest rates and widespread economic uncertainty in 2022 and 2023.

Inflation

Our operating expenses fluctuate with our revenue and general economic conditions, including inflation. The impacts of inflation, including wage inflation, continue to be noticeable in our results.

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RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Definitions

•Assets under management data for LaSalle is reported on a one-quarter lag.

•"n.m.": not meaningful, represented by a percentage change of greater than 1,000% or a change in margin of greater than 10,000 basis points ("bps"), favorable or unfavorable.

•Net income margin attributable to common shareholders is measured on Revenue and Adjusted EBITDA margin is measured on Fee revenue.

•We define "Resilient" revenue as (i) Property Management, within Markets Advisory, (ii) Value and Risk Advisory, and Loan Servicing, within Capital Markets, (iii) Workplace Management, within Work Dynamics, (iv) JLL Technologies, and (v) Advisory Fees, within LaSalle. In addition, we define "Transactional" revenue as (i) Leasing and Advisory, Consulting and Other, within Markets Advisory, (ii) Investment Sales, Debt/Equity Advisory and Other, within Capital Markets, (iii) Project Management and Portfolio Services and Other, within Work Dynamics, and (iv) Incentive fees and Transaction fees and other, within LaSalle.

Year Ended December 31, 2023 compared with Year Ended December 31, 2022

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,","Change in","% Change in Local Currency"],["($ in millions)","2023","2022","U.S. dollars"],["Markets Advisory","$","4,121.6","","4,415.5","","(293.9)","","(7)","%","(6)","%"],["Capital Markets","1,778.0","","2,488.2","","(710.2)","","(29)","","(29)"],["Work Dynamics","14,131.1","","13,268.5","","862.6","","7","","7"],["JLL Technologies","246.4","","213.9","","32.5","","15","","15"],["LaSalle","483.7","","476.0","","7.7","","2","","2"],["Revenue","$","20,760.8","","20,862.1","","(101.3)","","\u2014","%","\u2014","%"],["Gross contract costs","(13,375.9)","","(12,549.1)","","(826.8)","","7","","7"],["Net non-cash MSR and mortgage banking derivative activity","18.2","","(11.0)","","29.2","","(265)","","(266)"],["Fee revenue","$","7,403.1","","8,302.0","","(898.9)","","(11)","%","(11)","%"],["Markets Advisory","2,968.0","","3,360.2","","(392.2)","","(12)","","(11)"],["Capital Markets","1,748.7","","2,430.2","","(681.5)","","(28)","","(28)"],["Work Dynamics","1,999.7","","1,864.7","","135.0","","7","","7"],["JLL Technologies","231.9","","200.2","","31.7","","16","","16"],["LaSalle","454.8","","446.7","","8.1","","2","","2"],["Compensation and benefits, excluding gross contract costs","$","5,310.4","","5,893.8","","(583.4)","","(10)","%","(10)","%"],["Operating, administrative and other expenses, excluding gross contract costs","1,158.9","","1,218.2","","(59.3)","","(5)","","(5)"],["Depreciation and amortization","238.4","","228.1","","10.3","","5","","5"],["Restructuring and acquisition charges","100.7","","104.8","","(4.1)","","(4)","","(5)"],["Total fee-based operating expenses","6,808.4","","7,444.9","","(636.5)","","(9)","","(8)"],["Gross contract costs","13,375.9","","12,549.1","","826.8","","7","","7"],["Total operating expenses","$","20,184.3","","19,994.0","","190.3","","1","%","1","%"],["Operating income","$","576.5","","868.1","","(291.6)","","(34)","%","(33)","%"],["Equity (losses) earnings","$","(194.1)","","51.0","","(245.1)","","(481)","%","(480)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","736.7","","1,247.3","","(510.6)","","(41)","%","(40)","%"],["Net income margin attributable to common shareholders (USD basis)","1.1","%","3.1","%","(200) bps","n/a"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (local currency basis)","10.0","%","15.0","%","(500) bps","(500) bps"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (USD basis)","10.0","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

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Non-GAAP Financial Measures

Management uses certain non-GAAP financial measures to develop budgets and forecasts, measure and reward performance against those budgets and forecasts, and enhance comparability to prior periods. These measures are believed to be useful to investors and other external stakeholders as supplemental measures of core operating performance and include the following.

(i)Fee revenue and Fee-based operating expenses;

(ii)Adjusted EBITDA attributable to common shareholders ("Adjusted EBITDA") and Adjusted EBITDA margin; and

(iii)Percentage changes against prior periods, presented on a local currency basis.

However, non-GAAP financial measures should not be considered alternatives to measures determined in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Any measure that eliminates components of a company’s capital structure, cost of operations or investments, or other results has limitations as a performance measure. In light of these limitations, management also considers U.S. GAAP financial measures and does not rely solely on non-GAAP financial measures. Because our non-GAAP financial measures are not calculated in accordance with U.S. GAAP, they may not be comparable to similarly titled measures used by other companies.

Adjustments to U.S. GAAP Financial Measures Used to Calculate non-GAAP Financial Measures

Gross contract costs represent certain costs associated with client-dedicated employees and third-party vendors and subcontractors and are directly or indirectly reimbursed through the fees we receive. These costs are presented on a gross basis in Operating expenses with the equal amount of corresponding fees in Revenue. Excluding gross contract costs from both Fee revenue and Fee-based operating expenses more accurately reflects how we manage our expense base and operating margins and also enables a more consistent performance assessment across a portfolio of contracts with varying payment terms and structures.

Net non-cash MSR and mortgage banking derivative activity consists of the balances presented within Revenue composed of (i) derivative gains/losses resulting from mortgage banking loan commitment and warehousing activity and (ii) gains recognized from the retention of MSR upon origination and sale of mortgage loans, offset by (iii) amortization of MSR intangible assets over the period that net servicing income is projected to be received. Non-cash derivative gains/losses resulting from mortgage banking loan commitment and warehousing activity are calculated as the estimated fair value of loan commitments and subsequent changes thereof, primarily represented by the estimated net cash flows associated with future servicing rights. MSR gains and corresponding MSR intangible assets are calculated as the present value of estimated net cash flows over the estimated mortgage servicing periods. The above activity is reported entirely within Revenue of the Capital Markets segment. Excluding net non-cash MSR and mortgage banking derivative activity reflects how we manage and evaluate performance because the excluded activity is non-cash in nature.

Restructuring and acquisition charges primarily consist of (i) severance and employment-related charges, including those related to external service providers, incurred in conjunction with a structural business shift, which can be represented by a notable change in headcount, change in leadership or transformation of business processes, (ii) acquisition, transaction and integration-related charges, including non-cash fair value adjustments to assets and liabilities recorded in purchase accounting such as earn-out liabilities and intangible assets and (iii) lease exit charges. Such activity is excluded as the amounts are generally either non-cash in nature or the anticipated benefits from the expenditures would not likely be fully realized until future periods. Restructuring and acquisition charges are excluded from segment operating results and therefore not a line item in the segments’ reconciliation to Adjusted EBITDA.

Gain/loss on disposition reflects the gain or loss recognized on the sale or disposition of businesses. Given the low frequency of business disposals by the company historically, the gain or loss directly associated with such activity is excluded as it is not considered indicative of core operating performance. In 2023, we recorded a $0.5 million net loss, versus a $7.5 million net loss in 2022.

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Interest on Employee Loans, Net reflects interest accrued on employee loans less the amount of accrued interest forgiven. Certain employees (predominantly in our Leasing and Capital Markets businesses) receive cash payments structured as loans, with interest. Employees earn forgiveness of the loan based on performance, generally calculated as a percentage of revenue production, annually. Such forgiven amounts are reflected in Compensation and benefits expense. Given the interest accrued on these employee loans and subsequent forgiveness are non-cash and the amounts perfectly offset over the life of the loan, the activity is not indicative of core operating performance and is excluded from non-GAAP measures.

Reconciliation of Non-GAAP Financial Measures

Below are the reconciliations of (i) Revenue to fee revenue and (ii) Operating expenses to Fee-based operating expenses.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(in millions)","2023","2022"],["Revenue","$","20,760.8","","20,862.1"],["Adjustments:"],["Gross contract costs","(13,375.9)","","(12,549.1)"],["Net non-cash MSR and mortgage banking derivative activity","18.2","","(11.0)"],["Fee revenue","$","7,403.1","","8,302.0"],["Operating expenses","$","20,184.3","","19,994.0"],["Less: Gross contract costs","(13,375.9)","","(12,549.1)"],["Fee-based operating expenses","$","6,808.4","","7,444.9"],["Operating income","$","576.5","","868.1"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Below is a reconciliation of Net income attributable to common shareholders to EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(in millions)","2023","","2022"],["Net income attributable to common shareholders","$","225.4","","","654.5"],["Add:"],["Interest expense, net of interest income","135.4","","","75.2"],["Income tax provision","25.7","","","200.8"],["Depreciation and amortization(1)","234.4","","","225.2"],["EBITDA","$","620.9","","","1,155.7"],["Adjustments:"],["Restructuring and acquisition charges","100.7","","","104.8"],["Net loss on disposition","0.5","","","7.5"],["Net non-cash MSR and mortgage banking derivative activity","18.2","","","(11.0)"],["Interest on employee loans, net","(3.6)","","","(9.7)"],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","736.7","","","1,247.3"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

(1) This adjustment excludes the noncontrolling interest portion of amortization of acquisition-related intangibles which is not attributable to common shareholders.

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In discussing our operating results, we report Adjusted EBITDA margins and refer to percentage changes in local currency, unless otherwise noted. Amounts presented on a local currency basis are calculated by translating the current period results of our foreign operations to U.S. dollars using the foreign currency exchange rates from the comparative period. We believe this methodology provides a framework for assessing performance and operations excluding the effect of foreign currency fluctuations.

The following table reflects the reconciliation to local currency amounts for consolidated (i) Revenue, (ii) Fee revenue, (iii) Operating income and (iv) Adjusted EBITDA.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["($ in millions)","2023","% Change"],["Revenue:"],["At current period exchange rates","$","20,760.8","","\u2014","%"],["Impact of change in exchange rates","74.3","","n/a"],["At comparative period exchange rates","$","20,835.1","","\u2014","%"],["Fee revenue:"],["At current period exchange rates","$","7,403.1","","(11)","%"],["Impact of change in exchange rates","11.5","","n/a"],["At comparative period exchange rates","$","7,414.6","","(11)","%"],["Operating income:"],["At current period exchange rates","$","576.5","","(34)","%"],["Impact of change in exchange rates","4.5","","n/a"],["At comparative period exchange rates","$","581.0","","(33)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA:"],["At current period exchange rates","$","736.7","","(41)","%"],["Impact of change in exchange rates","7.5","","n/a"],["At comparative period exchange rates","$","744.2","","(40)","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

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Revenue

For the full year, revenue was flat and fee revenue decreased 11% compared with the prior year, as transaction-based businesses lagged the prior year. Resilient businesses, collectively, delivered 5% growth for the full year, as Property Management, within Markets Advisory, grew 11%; Workplace Management, within Work Dynamics, grew 7%; and JLL Technologies grew 16%. In contrast, transaction-based businesses, notably Investment Sales and Debt Advisory within Capital Markets as well as Leasing within Markets Advisory, experienced challenges from a rapid increase in interest rates and negative economic sentiment, consistent with performance starting in the second half of 2022.

The following highlights Revenue and fee revenue by segment, for the current and prior year ($ in millions). Refer to segment operating results for further detail.

Operating Expenses

Operating expenses increased 1% to $20.2 billion in 2023 while fee-based operating expenses were $6.8 billion in 2023, down 8% from prior year. The net increase in operating expenses was driven by growth in resilient businesses, such as Workplace Management and Property Management, including associated reimbursed expenses. The decline in fee-based operating expenses was attributable to Capital Markets, which represented 65% of the decrease on a local currency basis, Markets Advisory, which represented 46% of the decrease, and JLL Technologies, which represented 7% of the decrease. These were partially offset by Work Dynamics, which had an increase in fee-based operating expenses. Refer to segment operating results for additional detail.

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Restructuring and acquisition charges in 2023 were slightly lower than 2022; refer to the following table and commentary below for additional detail.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","Year Ended December 31,"],["(in millions)","","","","2023","2022"],["Severance and other employment-related charges","","","","$","62.1","","44.5"],["Restructuring, pre-acquisition and post-acquisition charges","","","","43.0","","63.6"],["Fair value adjustments that resulted in a net decrease to earn-out liabilities from prior-period acquisition activity","","","","(4.4)","","(3.3)"],["Restructuring and acquisition charges","","","","$","100.7","","104.8"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

The increase in severance and other employment-related charges, compared with 2022, reflected notable cost mitigation actions taken across the globe in 2023. The decrease in restructuring and pre- and post-acquisition charges was largely driven by lower retention-related post-acquisition charges and fewer restructuring costs related to business exits in 2023 compared to 2022.

Interest Expense

Interest expense, net of interest income, for 2023 was $135.4 million, compared to $75.2 million in 2022. The change was driven by a higher effective interest rate on our credit facilities and a year-over-year increase in the average outstanding borrowings. The average outstanding borrowings under our credit facilities increased to $1,875.9 million, with an average effective interest rate of 5.9%, in 2023, from $1,399.1 million, with an average effective interest rate of 2.9%, during 2022.

Equity Earnings

The following details Equity (losses) earnings by relevant segment. Refer to the segment discussions for additional details.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","Year Ended December 31,"],["(in millions)","","","","2023","2022"],["JLL Technologies","","","","$","(177.0)","","46.6"],["LaSalle","","","","(24.7)","","0.4"],["Other","","","","7.6","","4.0"],["Equity (losses) earnings","","","","$","(194.1)","","51.0"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Income Taxes

The provision for income taxes was $25.7 million and $200.8 million for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, representing effective tax rates ("ETR") of 10.2% and 20.2%, respectively. The meaningfully lower ETR in 2023 was primarily attributable to the significant decline in pre-tax earnings as well as the geographic mix of income. Refer to the Income Tax discussion in the Summary of Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates and Note 8, Income Taxes, of the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, for a further discussion of our effective tax rate.

Net Income and Adjusted EBITDA

Net income attributable to common shareholders was $225.4 million for the year, or $4.67 per diluted common share, compared with $654.5 million for 2022, or $13.27 per diluted common share. Adjusted EBITDA decreased 40% from the prior year to $736.7 million in 2023. Net income margin attributable to common shareholders was 1.1% in 2023, down from 3.1% in the prior year. Adjusted EBITDA margin, calculated on a fee revenue basis, was 10.0% in both USD and local currency for 2023, compared with 15.0% in 2022.

The full-year margin contraction was primarily attributable to the $245.1 million decrease in equity earnings, which comprised nearly two-thirds of the margin decline, and the impact of lower transaction-based revenue. Partially offsetting these items were margin accretive drivers including resilient revenue growth and the benefit of cost reduction actions executed in the last year.

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Segment Operating Results

We manage and report our operations as five business segments: Markets Advisory, Capital Markets, Work Dynamics, JLL Technologies and LaSalle. Markets Advisory offers a wide range of real estate services, including agency leasing and tenant representation, property management, and advisory and consulting services. Our Capital Markets service offerings include investment sales, debt and equity advisory, value and risk advisory, and loan servicing. Our Work Dynamics business provides a broad suite of integrated services to occupiers of real estate, including facility and project management, as well as portfolio and other services. We consider "Property Management" to be services provided to non-occupying property investors and "Workplace Management" to be services provided to facility occupiers. Our JLL Technologies segment offers software products, solutions and services, while LaSalle provides investment management services on a global basis to institutional investors and high-net-worth individuals.

For segment reporting, (i) gross contract costs and (ii) net non-cash MSR and mortgage banking derivative activity are both excluded from revenue in determining Fee revenue. Gross contract costs are excluded from operating expenses in determining Fee-based operating expenses. In addition, our measure of segment results also excludes Restructuring and acquisition charges.

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Markets Advisory

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","","","% Change"],["","Year Ended December 31,","Change in","in Local"],["($ in millions)","2023","2022","U.S. dollars","Currency"],["Revenue","$","4,121.6","","4,415.5","","(293.9)","","(7)","%","(6)","%"],["Gross contract costs","(1,153.6)","","(1,055.3)","","(98.3)","","9","","11"],["Fee revenue","$","2,968.0","","3,360.2","","(392.2)","","(12)","%","(11)","%"],["Leasing","2,322.3","","2,736.7","","(414.4)","","(15)","","(15)"],["Property Management","551.7","","500.2","","51.5","","10","","11"],["Advisory, Consulting and Other","94.0","","123.3","","(29.3)","","(24)","","(23)"],["Compensation and benefits, excluding gross contract costs","2,178.2","","2,433.7","","(255.5)","","(10)","","(10)"],["Operating, administrative and other expenses, excluding gross contract costs","368.3","","405.0","","(36.7)","","(9)","","(8)"],["Depreciation and amortization","69.6","","73.5","","(3.9)","","(5)","","(5)"],["Segment fee-based operating expenses (excluding restructuring and acquisition charges)","2,616.1","","2,912.2","","(296.1)","","(10)","","(10)"],["Gross contract costs","1,153.6","","1,055.3","","98.3","","9","","11"],["Segment operating expenses","$","3,769.7","","3,967.5","","(197.8)","","(5)","%","(4)","%"],["Equity losses","$","(0.5)","","(0.3)","","(0.2)","","(67)","%","(51)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","416.6","","527.5","","(110.9)","","(21)","%","(21)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (local currency basis)","14.1","%","15.7","%","(170) bps","(160) bps"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (USD basis)","14.0","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Markets Advisory top-line movements were largely driven by Leasing and reflected a decrease in average deal size and lower transaction volumes across nearly all asset classes, especially the office sector. Economic uncertainty has delayed commercial real estate decision making, particularly for large-scale leasing actions where JLL has a greater presence. Property Management continued to achieve top-line growth, primarily attributable to portfolio expansions, predominantly in the Americas, and incremental fees from interest-rate-sensitive contract terms in the U.K. The decrease in Advisory, Consulting and Other was substantially driven by the absence of revenues associated with a business exited at the end of the fourth quarter of 2022.

The decreases in segment operating expenses and segment fee-based operating expenses in 2023 were driven primarily by (i) lower commissions, commensurate with the top-line performance, (ii) the absence of operating costs associated with the business exited at the end of 2022 (referenced in the revenue narrative above) and (iii) the benefit associated with cost management actions executed over the last year to reduce expenses. These decreases were partially offset by higher annual incentive compensation expense this year as the prior-year results reflected a company-wide discretionary reduction to annual incentive compensation accruals.

Adjusted EBITDA margin contraction was predominantly driven by the lower Leasing revenue (net of lower commissions) and higher incentive compensation accruals in the current year, which overshadowed the revenue growth in Property Management and benefit associated with cost management actions discussed above.

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Capital Markets

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","","","% Change"],["","Year Ended December 31,","Change in","in Local"],["($ in millions)","2023","2022","U.S. dollars","Currency"],["Revenue","$","1,778.0","","2,488.2","","(710.2)","","(29)","%","(29)","%"],["Gross contract costs","(47.5)","","(47.0)","","(0.5)","","1","","1"],["Net non-cash MSR and mortgage banking derivative activity","18.2","","(11.0)","","29.2","","(265)","","(266)"],["Fee revenue","$","1,748.7","","2,430.2","","(681.5)","","(28)","%","(28)","%"],["Investment Sales, Debt/Equity Advisory and Other","1,245.0","","1,906.7","","(661.7)","","(35)","","(35)"],["Value and Risk Advisory","351.1","","365.6","","(14.5)","","(4)","","(3)"],["Loan Servicing","152.6","","157.9","","(5.3)","","(3)","","(3)"],["Compensation and benefits, excluding gross contract costs","1,337.7","","1,727.1","","(389.4)","","(23)","","(22)"],["Operating, administrative and other expenses, excluding gross contract costs","246.1","","263.2","","(17.1)","","(6)","","(6)"],["Depreciation and amortization","65.6","","61.6","","4.0","","6","","7"],["Segment fee-based operating expenses (excluding restructuring and acquisition charges)","1,649.4","","2,051.9","","(402.5)","","(20)","","(20)"],["Gross contract costs","47.5","","47.0","","0.5","","1","","1"],["Segment operating expenses","$","1,696.9","","2,098.9","","(402.0)","","(19)","%","(19)","%"],["Equity earnings","$","6.7","","3.1","","3.6","","116","%","114","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","173.1","","444.0","","(270.9)","","(61)","%","(61)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (local currency basis)","9.9","%","18.3","%","(840) bps","(840) bps"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (USD basis)","9.9","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Lower Capital Markets revenue and fee revenue reflected the meaningful drop in transaction volumes compared with 2022. The rapid rise in interest rates and elevated uncertainty prolonged investor decision making and drove wide bid-ask spreads. This impact was most pronounced in Investment Sales and Debt/Equity Advisory, which experienced declines across all asset classes and geographies. Globally, fourth-quarter market volumes for investment sales were down 23% in USD (24% in local currency) according to JLL Research, the lowest fourth quarter since 2011. Loan Servicing continued to achieve growth in fees generated by the Fannie Mae DUS portfolio as core servicing fees were up 6%, more than offset by $13.4 million of lower prepayment fees as refinancing activity remained suppressed.

The net decreases in segment operating expenses and segment fee-based operating expenses in 2023 were driven primarily by lower commissions, commensurate with the top-line performance, and to the benefit of cost management strategies actioned in the last year. These decreases were partially offset by higher incentive bonus expense in 2023, primarily reflecting the benefit to the prior year associated with the company-wide discretionary reduction to annual incentive compensation accruals.

The margin contraction was predominantly driven by the decline in Investment Sales and Debt/Equity Advisory revenue, net of lower commissions expense, as well as incentive compensation accruals, as described above.

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Work Dynamics

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","","","% Change"],["","Year Ended December 31,","Change in","in Local"],["($ in millions)","2023","2022","U.S. dollars","Currency"],["Revenue","$","14,131.1","","13,268.5","","862.6","","7","%","7","%"],["Gross contract costs","(12,131.4)","","(11,403.8)","","(727.6)","","6","","7"],["Fee Revenue","$","1,999.7","","1,864.7","","135.0","","7","%","7","%"],["Workplace Management","806.4","","752.8","","53.6","","7","","7"],["Project Management","928.4","","850.7","","77.7","","9","","9"],["Portfolio Services and Other","264.9","","261.2","","3.7","","1","","1"],["Compensation and benefits, excluding gross contract costs","1,305.1","","1,202.3","","102.8","","9","","9"],["Operating, administrative and other expenses, excluding gross contract costs","431.6","","432.9","","(1.3)","","\u2014","","\u2014"],["Depreciation and amortization","79.2","","71.1","","8.1","","11","","12"],["Segment fee-based operating expenses (excluding restructuring and acquisition charges)","1,815.9","","1,706.3","","109.6","","6","","7"],["Gross contract costs","12,131.4","","11,403.8","","727.6","","6","","7"],["Segment operating expenses","$","13,947.3","","13,110.1","","837.2","","6","%","7","%"],["Equity earnings","$","1.4","","1.2","","0.2","","17","%","17","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","264.0","","230.1","","33.9","","15","%","14","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (local currency basis)","13.1","%","12.3","%","90 bps","80 bps"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (USD basis)","13.2","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Work Dynamics revenue and fee revenue growth was broad-based across service lines and geographies, led by strong performance in Workplace Management as recent wins and mandate expansions ramped up in the second half of the year. Momentum from increased project demand drove Project Management top-line expansion throughout 2023, though the pace of growth decelerated in the fourth quarter.

The net increases in segment operating expenses and segment fee-based operating expenses in 2023 were primarily due to higher revenue-related expenses, which correlated to the overall growth in revenue as the benefit of cost management actions executed over the last year largely offset other operating expense increases.

Margin expansion was driven by the Workplace Management and Project Management revenue growth and the reduction of certain expenses associated with cost management actions over the last year.

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JLL Technologies

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","","","% Change"],["","Year Ended December 31,","Change in","in Local"],["($ in millions)","2023","2022","U.S. dollars","Currency"],["Revenue","$","246.4","","213.9","","32.5","","15","%","15","%"],["Gross contract costs","(14.5)","","(13.7)","","(0.8)","","6","","6"],["Fee revenue","$","231.9","","200.2","","31.7","","16","%","16","%"],["Compensation and benefits, excluding gross contract costs(1)","200.7","","240.3","","(39.6)","","(16)","","(16)"],["Operating, administrative and other expenses, excluding gross contract costs","50.3","","57.4","","(7.1)","","(12)","","(12)"],["Depreciation and amortization","15.9","","15.4","","0.5","","3","","3"],["Segment fee-based operating expenses (excluding restructuring and acquisition charges)","266.9","","313.1","","(46.2)","","(15)","","(15)"],["Gross contract costs","14.5","","13.7","","0.8","","6","","6"],["Segment operating expenses","$","281.4","","326.8","","(45.4)","","(14)","%","(14)","%"],["Equity (losses) earnings","$","(177.0)","","46.6","","(223.6)","","(480)","%","(480)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","(196.1)","","(50.9)","","(145.2)","","(285)","%","(286)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (local currency basis)","(84.9)","%","(25.4)","%","(5,920) bps","(5,950) bps"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (USD basis)","(84.6)","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

(1) Included in Compensation and benefits expenses for JLL Technologies is a reduction in carried interest expense of $13.8 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023, and carried interest expense of $16.6 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2022, related to Equity earnings of the segment.

The full-year increases in JLL Technologies revenue and fee revenue were primarily due to growth in services and software solutions, largely from existing enterprise clients, as well as a modest increase from subscriptions.

Equity losses in 2023 were largely driven by fair value declines and reflected the particularly challenging economic environment for venture capital companies. Equity earnings in 2022 were attributable to modest valuation increases across several investments, offset by less significant impairments/valuation declines compared with 2023.

Lower segment operating expenses and segment fee-based operating expenses in 2023 were largely driven by (i) a $30.4 million year-over-year difference associated with carried interest expense (which broadly correlates to equity earnings/losses), given the reduction in carried interest expense in 2023 compared with incremental expense in 2022 and (ii) the reduction of certain expenses associated with cost management actions over the last year.

The full-year margin contraction was entirely driven by the equity losses, partially offset by (i) fee revenue growth, (ii) the reduction in carried interest expense (associated with equity losses) and (iii) the reduction of certain expenses associated with cost management actions and improved operating efficiency over the last year.

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LaSalle

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","","","% Change"],["","Year Ended December 31,","Change in","in Local"],["($ in millions)","2023","2022","U.S. dollars","Currency"],["Revenue","$","483.7","","476.0","","7.7","","2","%","2","%"],["Gross contract costs","(28.9)","","(29.3)","","0.4","","(1)","","(2)"],["Fee revenue","$","454.8","","446.7","","8.1","","2","%","2","%"],["Advisory fees","377.2","","380.3","","(3.1)","","(1)","","\u2014"],["Transaction fees and other","30.1","","39.8","","(9.7)","","(24)","","(22)"],["Incentive fees","47.5","","26.6","","20.9","","79","","79"],["Compensation and benefits, excluding gross contract costs","288.7","","290.4","","(1.7)","","(1)","","\u2014"],["Operating, administrative and other expenses, excluding gross contract costs","62.6","","59.7","","2.9","","5","","5"],["Depreciation and amortization","8.1","","6.5","","1.6","","25","","26"],["Segment fee-based operating expenses (excluding restructuring and acquisition charges)","359.4","","356.6","","2.8","","1","","1"],["Gross contract costs","28.9","","29.3","","(0.4)","","(1)","","(2)"],["Segment operating expenses","$","388.3","","385.9","","2.4","","1","%","1","%"],["Equity (losses) earnings","$","(24.7)","","0.4","","(25.1)","","n.m.","n.m."],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","79.1","","96.6","","(17.5)","","(18)","%","(17)","%"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (local currency basis)","17.5","%","21.6","%","(420) bps","(410) bps"],["Adjusted EBITDA margin (USD basis)","17.4","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

LaSalle's top-line growth was fueled by higher incentive fees earned on asset dispositions on behalf of clients, following muted transaction volume in 2022. Advisory fees were stable compared to the prior year as increases from capital raising were largely offset by valuation declines impacting AUM. Lower transaction fees reflected the global trends in investment sales transaction volumes.

The 2023 equity losses were primarily attributable to valuation declines in the co-investment portfolio.

Adjusted EBITDA margin contraction was primarily driven by equity losses in the current year (over 500 basis point negative impact to margin), partially offset by higher incentive fees.

As of December 31, 2023, LaSalle had $73.9 billion of AUM, a decrease of 7% in both USD and local currency from

$79.1 billion as of December 31, 2022. The net decrease in AUM during the year resulted from (i) $5.7 billion of dispositions and withdrawals and (ii) $4.0 billion of net valuation decreases, partially offset by (iii) $4.0 billion of acquisitions and $0.5 billion of foreign currency increases. As further described in Item 1, LaSalle will refine the definition of AUM in 2024 to conform with industry standards. Under the new definition, AUM as of December 31, 2023 would have been $89.0 billion.

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LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Operating activities provided $575.8 million of cash in 2023, compared with $199.9 million provided in 2022. The improvement in cash provided was primarily due to (i) improved collection of receivables (ii) $162.8 million less in cash taxes paid, (iii) lower annual incentive compensation payments, typically paid in the first quarter, compared with the prior year and (iv) lower commission payments in 2023.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

We used $290.4 million of cash for investing activities during 2023, compared with $243.1 million used in 2022. Net cash outflow was lower in 2022 due to the receipt of $132.4 million net capital proceeds relating to an investment by a less than wholly-owned subsidiary (offset within cash flows from financing activities as noted below). We discuss key drivers, along with other investing activities, individually below in further detail.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Financing activities used $374.3 million of cash during 2023, compared with $13.1 million used during 2022. The decrease in net borrowings on our Facility ($600.0 million net paydowns in 2023 versus $1,075.0 million of net borrowings in 2022) was driven by lower share repurchases (refer to the Share Repurchases section below) and higher cash provided by operating activities. In addition, the $400.0 million in proceeds associated with the issuance of senior notes was used to pay down the Facility. Cash outflow relating to noncontrolling interest distributions in 2022 included a $142.3 million gain by a consolidated variable interest entity in which the company held no equity interest that was also distributed during the year. The offset to this is included in cash from investing activities, specifically investment activity by less than wholly-owned entities.

Debt

On November 3, 2023, we amended our Facility to extend the maturity date to November 3, 2028 as well as update our borrowing capacity to $3.30 billion. Our Facility continues to bear a variable rate of interest. Outstanding borrowings, including the balance of the Facility and Short-term borrowings (financing lease obligations, overdrawn bank accounts and local overdraft facilities) are presented below.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","December 31,"],["(in millions)","2023","2022"],["Outstanding borrowings under the Facility","$","625.0","","1,225.0"],["Short-term borrowings","147.9","","164.2"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

In addition to our Facility, we had the capacity to borrow up to $55.2 million under local overdraft facilities as of December 31, 2023.

The following table provides additional information on our Facility as well as our uncommitted credit agreement ("Uncommitted Facility"), which allows for discretionary short-term liquidity of up to $400.0 million, collectively.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","Year Ended December 31,"],["($ in millions)","","","2023","2022"],["Average outstanding borrowings","","","$","1,875.9","","1,399.1"],["Average effective interest rate","","","5.9","%","2.9","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

As of December 31, 2023, we had €350.0 million of Euro Notes, evenly divided between maturities of June 2027 (with a fixed interest rate of 1.96%) and June 2029 (with a fixed interest rate of 2.21%). During 2023, we issued $400.0 million of Senior Notes due December 2028 with a fixed interest rate of 6.875% and used the proceeds to pay down our Facility.

We will continue to use the Facility for working capital needs (including payment of accrued incentive compensation), co-investment activities, share repurchases, capital expenditures and acquisitions.

Refer to Note 10, Debt in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, for additional information on our debt.

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Investment Activity

As of December 31, 2023, we had a carrying value of $816.6 million in Investments, primarily related to investments by JLL Technologies in early to mid-stage proptech companies and proptech funds as well as LaSalle co-investments. In 2023 and 2022, funding of investments exceeded returns of capital by $85.7 million and $142.9 million, respectively. We expect continued investments by JLL Technologies as well as strategic co-investment opportunities with our investment management clients globally as co-investment remains an important foundation to the continued growth of LaSalle's business.

We have unfunded capital commitments to investment vehicles and direct investments totaling a maximum of $354.6 million as of December 31, 2023.

See Note 5, Investments, of the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, for additional information on our investment activity.

Share Repurchase and Dividend Programs

In February 2022, our Board of Directors authorized an additional $1.5 billion for the repurchase of our common stock in the open market and privately negotiated transactions. As of December 31, 2023, $1,093.6 million remained authorized for repurchases under our repurchase program. The following table outlines share repurchase activity for the last two year.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","","Year Ended December 31,"],["($ in millions)","","","","2023","2022"],["Total number of shares repurchased (in 000's)","","","","410.3","","2,922.5"],["Total paid for shares repurchased","","","","$","62.0","","601.2"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Capital Expenditures

Capital expenditures, excluding those made by a consolidated VIE in which we held no equity interest, were $186.9 million and $205.8 million in 2023 and 2022, respectively. Expenditures in both years were primarily related to office leasehold improvements, hardware and purchased/developed software.

Investment Asset Activity of Consolidated Less Than Wholly-Owned Entities

Net capital proceeds related to consolidated VIEs in which we held no equity interest were $134.8 million in 2022, as a result of a reconsideration event. The distribution of proceeds from the sale of this investment (the initial acquisition of which was largely funded from employee-investors and related third-party debt) also occurred in 2022 and is included within financing activities.

Business Acquisitions

In 2023, we paid $40.4 million for business acquisitions. This included $13.6 million of payments relating to an acquisition that closed in 2023 and $26.8 million for deferred business acquisition and earn-out obligations related to acquisitions completed in prior years, which are primarily reflected in cash flows from financing activities.

Terms for our acquisitions have typically included cash paid at closing with provisions for additional consideration and earn-out payments subject to certain contract provisions and performance. Deferred business acquisition obligations totaled $13.2 million and $26.2 million on the Consolidated Balance Sheets as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. These obligations represent the current discounted values of payments to sellers of businesses for which our acquisition has closed as of the balance sheet dates and for which the only remaining condition on those payments is the passage of time. As of December 31, 2023, we had the potential to make earn-out payments on 14 acquisitions subject to the achievement of certain performance conditions, representing $57.5 million accrued for potential earn-out payments, of a potential maximum of $100.0 million (undiscounted). These earn-outs will come due at various times over the next five years, assuming the achievement of the applicable performance conditions.

We will continue to consider acquisitions we believe will strengthen our market position, increase our profitability and supplement our organic growth.

Refer to Note 4, Business Combinations, Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets, of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, for further information on business acquisitions.

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Table of Contents

Repatriation of Foreign Earnings

Based on our historical experience and future business plans, we do not expect to repatriate our foreign source earnings to the U.S. We believe our policy of permanently reinvesting earnings of foreign subsidiaries does not significantly impact our liquidity. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, we had total cash and cash equivalents of $410.0 million and $519.3 million, respectively, of which $310.1 million and $400.8 million, respectively, was held by our foreign subsidiaries.

Restricted Net Assets

We face regulatory restrictions in certain countries that limit or prevent the transfer of funds to other countries or the exchange of the local currency to other currencies, however, we generally face no such restrictions with regard to the use or application of funds for ordinary course business activities within such countries. The total assets of these countries in aggregate totaled approximately 4% of our total assets as of both December 31, 2023 and 2022.

Leases

Our lease obligations primarily consist of operating leases of office space in various buildings for our own use as well as operating leases for equipment. The total minimum rentals to be received in the future as sublessor under noncancelable operating subleases as of December 31, 2023 was $37.6 million.

Refer to Note 11, Leases, of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, for further information on our lease obligations.

Deferred Compensation

Deferred compensation obligations are inclusive of amounts attributable to service conditions satisfied as of December 31, 2023, as well as service conditions expected to be satisfied in future periods. The deferred compensation plans include a provision for deferred compensation plans, predominantly in the U.S., that allow employees to defer portions of their compensation. We recognize an asset for the amount that could be realized under these insurance contracts at the balance sheet date, and the deferred compensation obligation is adjusted to reflect the changes in the fair value of the amount owed to the employees. The timing of payments to employees is, in part, dependent on their employment with JLL and, therefore, cannot be determined with precision.

Refer to the Consolidated Balance Sheets, of the Consolidated Financial Statements, and Note 9, Fair Value Measurements, of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, for further information on our deferred compensation.

Defined Benefit Plans

The defined benefit plan obligations represent estimates of the expected benefits to be paid out by our defined benefit plans. We will fund these obligations from the assets held by these plans. If the assets these plans hold are not sufficient to fund these payments, JLL will fund the remaining obligations. We have historically funded pension costs as actuarially determined and as applicable laws and regulations require. We expect to contribute $6.5 million to our defined benefit pension plans in 2024. As payments to recipients are based on their retirement date, age and other factors, we cannot determine the timing of such payments with precision.

Refer to Note 7, Retirement Plans, of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements, included in Item 8, for further information on our defined benefit plans.