# Rackspace Technology, Inc. (RXT) FY 2022 MD&A

Verbatim Item 7 Management's Discussion and Analysis from Rackspace Technology, Inc.'s 10-K for fiscal year 2022.

SEC filing source: https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1810019/000181001923000034/rxt-20221231.htm
Accession: 0001810019-23-000034
Filing date: 2023-03-16
Report date: 2022-12-31
Extracted structurally from real Item 7 body heading to real Item 7A/8 boundary.
Confidence: high

Company profile: /company/RXT/
All MD&A years: /company/RXT/mda/
Previous year: /company/RXT/mda/fy2021/ (FY 2021)
Next year: /company/RXT/mda/fy2023/ (FY 2023)

ITEM 7 - MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION

AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following MD&A is intended to help readers understand our results of operations, financial condition and cash flows and should be read in conjunction with the audited consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report. References to “Rackspace Technology,” “we,” “our company,” “the company,” “us,” or “our” refer to Rackspace Technology and its consolidated subsidiaries.

The following discussion contains forward-looking statements that involve risk, assumptions and uncertainties, such as statements of our plans, objectives, expectations, intentions and forecasts. Our actual results and the timing of selected events could differ materially from those discussed in these forward-looking statements as a result of several factors, including those set forth under the section of this Annual Report titled “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this Annual Report. You should carefully read the “Risk Factors” to gain an understanding of the important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from our forward-looking statements. Please also see “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” contained elsewhere in this Annual Report.

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Overview

We are a leading end-to-end multicloud technology services company. We design, build and operate our customers’ cloud environments across all major technology platforms, irrespective of technology stack or deployment model. We partner with our customers at every stage of their cloud journey, enabling them to modernize applications, build new products and adopt innovative technologies. We serve our customers with a unique combination of proprietary technology resulting from over $1 billion of investment and services expertise from a team of highly skilled consultants and engineers. And we provide our customers with unbiased expertise and technology solutions, delivered over the world’s leading cloud services, all wrapped in Fanatical Experience.

We aim to be our customers’ most trusted advisor and services partner in their path to cloud transformation and to accelerate the value of their cloud investments. We give customers the ability to make fluid decisions when choosing the right technologies, and we recommend solutions based on customers’ unique objectives. In this way, we empower our customers to harness the full benefits of cloud adoption.

Our team of 6,800 highly skilled Rackers, including consultants and engineers, partners with companies at every stage of their cloud transformation journey

We deliver our services to a global customer base through an integrated service delivery model. We have a presence in more than 60 cities around the world. This footprint allows us to better serve customers based in various countries, especially multinational companies requiring cross-border solutions. We have a strong presence with customers of all sizes, including enterprise businesses (revenue in excess of $3 billion), mid-market businesses (revenue of $300 million to $3 billion) and commercial customers (revenue less than $300 million).

On November 3, 2016, Rackspace Hosting (now named Rackspace Technology Global) was acquired by Inception Parent, an indirect wholly-owned subsidiary of the company. Pursuant to the merger agreement, dated as of August 26, 2016, Rackspace Technology Global merged with a wholly-owned subsidiary of Inception Parent, with Rackspace Technology Global surviving as a wholly-owned subsidiary of Inception Parent.

We operate our business and report our results through three reportable segments: (1) Multicloud Services, (2) Apps & Cross Platform and (3) OpenStack Public Cloud. Our Multicloud Services segment includes our multicloud services offerings, as well as professional services related to designing and building multicloud solutions and cloud-native applications. Our Apps & Cross Platform segment includes managed applications, managed security and data services, as well as professional services related to designing and implementing application, security and data services. In early 2017, we determined that our OpenStack Public Cloud offering was not core to our go-forward operations and we ceased to incentivize our sales team to promote and sell the product by the end of that year. We continue to serve our existing OpenStack Public Cloud customer base while we focus our growth strategy and investments on our Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform offerings. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 17, "Segment Reporting" for additional information about our segments. We refer to certain supplementary Core financial measures, which reflect the results or otherwise pertain to the performance of our Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform segments, in the aggregate. Our Core financial measures exclude the results and performance of our OpenStack Public Cloud segment.

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We generate revenue primarily through the sale of consumption-based contracts for our services offerings, which are recurring in nature. We also generate revenue from the sale of professional services related to designing and building customer solutions, which are non-recurring in nature. Arrangements within our Multicloud Services offerings generally have a fixed term, typically from 12 to 36 months, with a monthly recurring fee based on the computing resources provided to and utilized by the customer, the complexity of the underlying infrastructure and the level of support we provide. Our other primary sources of revenue are for public cloud services within our Multicloud Services, our Apps & Cross Platform and our OpenStack Public Cloud offerings. Contracts for these arrangements typically operate on a consumption model and can be canceled at any time without penalty.

We sell our services through direct sales teams, third-party channel partners and via online orders. Our sales model is based on both distributed and centralized sales teams with leads generated from technology partners, customer referrals, channel partners and corporate marketing efforts. We offer customers the flexibility to select the best combination of resources in order to meet the requirements of their unique applications and provide the technology to seamlessly operate and manage multiple cloud computing environments.

On August 7, 2020, we completed the IPO, in which we issued and sold 33,500,000 shares of our common stock at a public offering price of $21.00 per share.

On July 21, 2021, we committed to the July 2021 Restructuring Plan to drive a change in the type and location of certain positions that was expected to result in the termination of approximately 10% of our workforce. We recorded total charges of $50.5 million and $5.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2021 and December 31, 2022, respectively, related to this restructuring plan. The 2021 charges included $25.4 million for employee related costs and other costs accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420 as described in Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 10, "July 2021 Restructuring Plan." Employee related costs consisted of one-time termination benefits and certain contractual termination benefits with executives. Other costs consisted of professional fees and non-cash charges related to a contract termination with a third-party. The remaining $25.1 million of 2021 charges and total 2022 charges consisted primarily of one-time offshore build out costs which are not accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420. We do not expect to incur any further expenses related to the July 2021 Restructuring Plan.

In December 2022, we experienced a ransomware incident which caused service disruptions for our Hosted Exchange customers. The Hosted Exchange email business, reported in our Apps & Cross Platform segment, is a managed email solution provided to small and medium businesses and represented approximately 1% of our total annual revenue. Following discovery of the incident, we engaged an industry-leading global cybersecurity firm to help investigate the incident and remediate as necessary. The firm confirmed that the incident was quickly contained and limited solely to the Hosted Exchange email business. We have sunset the on-premises Hosted Exchange platform and have transitioned many customers from the Hosted Exchange platform to Microsoft 365 through our reseller agreement with Microsoft. As of December 31, 2022, we recorded $5.9 million of expenses related to the Hosted Exchange incident, including costs to investigate and remediate, legal and other professional services, and supplemental staff resources that were deployed to provide support to customers. We expect to continue to incur legal and other professional services costs in future periods and will expense those costs as incurred. We maintain cybersecurity insurance commensurate with the size of our business, and expect that a significant portion of the incremental costs related to the Hosted Exchange incident will be covered by insurance. However, the timing of insurance reimbursements may differ from the timing of recognition of the related expenses.

Effective on January 1, 2023, we reorganized around a two-business unit operating model, Public Cloud and Private Cloud. This two-business unit operating model ensures increased focus, delivery, and service quality for our customers. Beginning in 2023, we will change our segment reporting to reflect this reorganization under three reporting segments: Public Cloud, Private Cloud and OpenStack Public Cloud.

Subsequent Events

For a description of subsequent events, see "Subsequent Events" in Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 1, "Company Overview, Basis of Presentation, and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies."

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Impact of COVID-19

The effects of COVID-19 and its variants continue to evolve, and the full impact and duration of the virus are unknown. To date, COVID-19 and its variants have not adversely affected our results of operations or financial condition in any material respect. However, there are remaining uncertainties as a result of COVID-19, particularly the possibility of new variant strain(s) of the virus, the potential resurgence in the spread of the virus and the pace of economic recovery. The full extent to which COVID-19 and its variants may impact our financial condition or results of operations over the medium to long term, therefore, remains uncertain. We will continue to actively monitor the situation and may take further actions that alter our business operations as may be required by federal, state or local authorities, or that we determine are in the best interests of our employees, customers, partners, suppliers and stockholders.

Russia and Ukraine Conflict

Political and economic uncertainty surrounding the Conflict between Russia and Ukraine could have a material adverse effect on our business. Currently, the conflict has not had a significant impact on our operations or financial performance. However, our overall performance depends in part on worldwide economic and geopolitical conditions. We are monitoring the situation and the potential for the conflict to spread to other countries which could adversely impact our customers and operations, and we may take actions that modify our business operations as may be required by federal, state or local authorities, or that we determine are in the best interests of our employees, customers, partners, suppliers and stockholders.

Key Factors Affecting Our Performance

We believe our combination of proprietary technology, automation capabilities and technical expertise creates a value proposition for our customers that is hard to replicate for both competitors and in-house IT departments. Our continued success depends to a significant extent on our ability to meet the challenges presented by our highly competitive and dynamic market, including the following key factors:

Differentiating Our Service Offerings in a Competitive Market Environment

Our success depends to a significant extent on our ability to differentiate, expand and upgrade our service offerings in line with developing customer needs, while deepening our relationships with leading public cloud service providers and establishing new relationships, including with sales partners. We are a certified premier consulting and managed services partner to some of the largest cloud computing platforms, including AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud, Oracle, SAP and VMware. We believe we are unique in our ability to serve customers across major technology stacks and deployment options, all while delivering Fanatical Experience. Our existing and prospective customers are also under increasing pressure to move from on-premise or self-managed IT to the cloud to compete effectively in a digital economy and maximize the value of their cloud investments, which we believe presents an opportunity for professional services projects as well as new recurring business.

Customer Relationships and Retention

Our success greatly depends on our ability to retain and develop opportunities with our existing customers and to attract new customers. We operate in a growing but competitive and evolving market environment, requiring innovation to differentiate us from our competitors. We believe that our integrated cloud service portfolio and our differentiated customer experience and technology are keys to retaining and growing revenue from existing customers as well as acquiring new customers. For example, we believe that Rackspace Fabric provides customers a unified experience across their entire cloud and security footprint, and that our Rackspace Elastic Engineering model helps customers embrace a cloud native approach with on-demand access to a dedicated team of highly skilled cloud architects and engineers. These offerings differentiate us from legacy IT service providers that operate under long-term fixed and project-based fee structures often tethered to their existing technologies with less automation.

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Business Mix Shift

The mix of revenue within our Multicloud Services segment has shifted in recent years, from mature offerings such as managed hosting and colocation to managed public cloud services. Since the mature offerings are hosted on our own infrastructure, these offerings carry a higher gross margin, but also a higher burden on the company for operating expenses and capital expenditures. Conversely, as managed public cloud services are hosted on third-party infrastructure, these services carry a lower gross margin, but also a correspondingly lower operating expense and capital expenditure burdens. As a result, despite the difference in gross margins between the mature offerings and the growth offerings, the operating margins for the different classes of offerings is relatively similar.

Shift in Capital Intensity

In recent years, the mix of our consolidated revenues has shifted from high capital intensity service offerings to low capital intensity service offerings and we expect this mix shift to continue. Historically, we primarily offered managed hosting and OpenStack Public Cloud services to our customers, which required us to deploy servers and equipment to ensure adequate capacity for new customers and, in certain cases, on behalf of customers at the start or during the performance of a contract, resulting in a high level of anticipatory and success-based capital expenditures. Today, the vast majority of our revenue is derived from service offerings, such as managed public cloud services, application services and professional services, which have significantly lower success-based capital requirements because they allow us to leverage our partners’ infrastructure or technology to make our capital expenditures more efficient. As a result, we have recently experienced and expect to continue to experience changes in our capital expenditures requirements.

Our capital expenditures equaled 8%, 7% and 5% of our revenue for the years ended December 31, 2020, 2021 and 2022, respectively. While there is some variability in capital expenditures from quarter to quarter due to timing of purchases, we expect to maintain current capital intensity levels over the longer term.

Human Capital

Our ability to be successful and to execute on our strategies depends on our ability to hire and retain qualified employees. Like others in our industry, we are realizing higher than historical levels of voluntary attrition. As a result, we are accelerating our best shoring efforts and expanding the geographic reach of our recruiting pool. The company continues to enhance and develop programs to attract, retain and develop top talent.

Key Components of Statement of Operations

Revenue

A substantial amount of our revenue, particularly from our private cloud services within our Multicloud Services segment, is generated pursuant to contracts that typically have a fixed term (typically from 12 to 36 months). Our customers generally have the right to cancel their contracts by providing us with written notice prior to the end of the fixed term, though most of our contracts provide for termination fees in the event of cancellation prior to the end of their term, typically amounting to the outstanding value of the contract. These contracts include a monthly recurring fee, which is determined based on the computing resources utilized and provided to the customer, the complexity of the underlying infrastructure and the level of support we provide. Our public cloud services within the Multicloud Services segment and most of our Apps & Cross Platform and OpenStack Public Cloud services generate usage-based revenue invoiced on a monthly basis and can be canceled at any time without penalty. We also generate revenue from usage-based fees and fees from professional services earned from customers using our hosting and other services. We typically recognize revenue on a daily basis, as services are provided, in an amount that reflects the consideration to which we expect to be entitled in exchange for our services. Our usage-based arrangements generally include a variable consideration component, consisting of monthly utility fees, with a defined price and undefined quantity. Our customer contracts also typically contain service level guarantees, including with respect to network uptime requirements, that provide discounts when we fail to meet specific obligations and, with respect to certain products, we may offer volume discounts based on usage. As these variable consideration components consist of a single distinct daily service provided on a single performance obligation, we account for all of them as services are provided and earned.

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Cost of revenue

Cost of revenue consists primarily of usage charges for third-party infrastructure and personnel costs (including salaries, bonuses, benefits and share-based compensation) for engineers, developers and other employees involved in the delivery of services to our customers. Cost of revenue also includes depreciation of servers, software and other systems infrastructure, data center rent and other infrastructure maintenance and support costs, including software license costs and utilities. Cost of revenue is driven mainly by demand for our services, our service mix and the cost of labor in a given geography.

Selling, general and administrative expenses

SG&A expenses consist primarily of personnel costs (including salaries, bonuses, commissions, benefits and share-based compensation) for our sales force, executive team and corporate administrative and support employees, including our human resources, finance, accounting and legal functions. SG&A also includes R&D costs, repair and maintenance of corporate infrastructure, facilities rent, third-party advisory fees (including audit, legal and management consulting costs), marketing and advertising costs and insurance, as well as the amortization of related intangible assets and certain depreciation of fixed assets.

SG&A also includes transaction costs related to acquisitions and financings along with costs related to integration and business transformation initiatives which may impact the comparability of SG&A between periods. Employee related costs and other costs incurred, as discussed in Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 10, "July 2021 Restructuring Plan," are also included within SG&A.

Income taxes

Our income tax benefit and deferred tax assets and liabilities reflect management’s best assessment of estimated current and future taxes to be paid. To date, we have recorded consolidated tax benefits, reflecting our net losses, though certain of our non-U.S. subsidiaries have incurred corporate tax expense according to the relevant taxing jurisdictions. We are under certain domestic and foreign tax audits. Due to the complexity involved with certain tax matters, there is the possibility that the various taxing authorities may disagree with certain tax positions filed on our income tax returns. We believe we have made adequate provision for all uncertain tax positions. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 13, "Taxes."

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Results of Operations

We discuss our historical results of operations, and the key components of those results, below. Past financial results are not necessarily indicative of future results.

Year Ended December 31, 2021 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2022

The following table sets forth our results of operations for the specified periods, as well as changes between periods and as a percentage of revenue for those same periods (totals in table may not foot due to rounding):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,","","Year-Over-Year Comparison"],["","2021","","2022"],["(In millions, except %)","Amount","","% Revenue","","Amount","","% Revenue","","Amount","","% Change"],["Revenue","$","3,009.5","","","100.0","%","","$","3,122.3","","","100.0","%","","$","112.8","","","3.7","%"],["Cost of revenue","(2,072.7)","","","(68.9)","%","","(2,265.4)","","","(72.6)","%","","(192.7)","","","9.3","%"],["Gross profit","936.8","","","31.1","%","","856.9","","","27.4","%","","(79.9)","","","(8.5)","%"],["Selling, general and administrative expenses","(906.8)","","","(30.1)","%","","(855.3)","","","(27.4)","%","","51.5","","","(5.7)","%"],["Impairment of goodwill","(52.4)","","","(1.7)","%","","(534.5)","","","(17.1)","%","","(482.1)","","","NM"],["Impairment of assets","\u2014","","","\u2014","%","","(146.1)","","","(4.7)","%","","(146.1)","","","100.0","%"],["Gain on sale of land","19.9","","","0.7","%","","\u2014","","","\u2014","%","","(19.9)","","","(100.0)","%"],["Loss from operations","(2.5)","","","(0.1)","%","","(679.0)","","","(21.7)","%","","(676.5)","","","NM"],["Other income (expense):"],["Interest expense","(205.1)","","","(6.8)","%","","(208.5)","","","(6.7)","%","","(3.4)","","","1.7","%"],["Loss on investments, net","(3.0)","","","(0.1)","%","","(0.2)","","","(0.0)","%","","2.8","","","(93.3)","%"],["Debt modification and extinguishment costs","(37.5)","","","(1.2)","%","","\u2014","","","\u2014","%","","37.5","","","(100.0)","%"],["Other expense, net","(1.0)","","","(0.0)","%","","(10.0)","","","(0.3)","%","","(9.0)","","","NM"],["Total other income (expense)","(246.6)","","","(8.2)","%","","(218.7)","","","(7.0)","%","","27.9","","","(11.3)","%"],["Loss before income taxes","(249.1)","","","(8.3)","%","","(897.7)","","","(28.8)","%","","(648.6)","","","NM"],["Benefit for income taxes","30.8","","","1.0","%","","92.9","","","3.0","%","","62.1","","","NM"],["Net loss","$","(218.3)","","","(7.3)","%","","$","(804.8)","","","(25.8)","%","","$","(586.5)","","","NM"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

NM = not meaningful.

Revenue

Revenue increased $113 million, or 3.7%, to $3,122 million in 2022 from $3,010 million in 2021. Revenue was positively impacted by new customer acquisition and growing customer spend in our Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform segments, as discussed below.

After removing the impact from foreign currency fluctuations, on a constant currency basis, revenue increased 5.2% year-over-year. The following table presents revenue growth by segment:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,","","% Change"],["(In millions, except %)","2021","","2022","","Actual","","Constant Currency (1)"],["Multicloud Services","$","2,449.1","","","$","2,574.9","","","5.1","%","","6.7","%"],["Apps & Cross Platform","377.6","","","396.9","","","5.1","%","","5.9","%"],["Core Revenue","2,826.7","","","2,971.8","","","5.1","%","","6.6","%"],["OpenStack Public Cloud","182.8","","","150.5","","","(17.7)","%","","(16.1)","%"],["Total","$","3,009.5","","","$","3,122.3","","","3.7","%","","5.2","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

(1)     Refer to "Non-GAAP Financial Measures" in this section for further explanation and reconciliation.

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Multicloud Services revenue in 2022 increased 5% on an actual basis, and 7% on a constant currency basis, from 2021. Underlying growth was driven by both the acquisition of new customers and increased spend by existing customers, partially offset by cancellations by existing customers. Offerings in this segment with the strongest growth include managed public cloud services on AWS, Microsoft Azure and Google Cloud.

Apps & Cross Platform revenue in 2022 increased 5% on an actual basis, and 6% on a constant currency basis, from 2021, driven by growth in professional services across our SaaS applications and data services offerings, partially offset by the discontinuation of a non-core line of business in 2021.

OpenStack Public Cloud revenue in 2022 decreased 18% on an actual basis, and 16% on a constant currency basis, from 2021 due to customer churn.

Cost of Revenue

Cost of revenue increased $193 million, or 9%, to $2,265 million in 2022 from $2,073 million in 2021, primarily due to an increase in usage charges for third-party infrastructure associated with growth in these offerings. The increase in expense was partially offset by a decline in personnel costs primarily due to cost savings as a result of shifting roles to lower-cost locations as part of our continued focus on business optimization initiatives, including the July 2021 Restructuring Plan. We also had higher severance in the prior period. In addition, there were year-over-year data center expense reductions as a result of initiatives to lower our cost structure, which included the consolidation of data center facilities. Depreciation expense also decreased between periods primarily due to certain property, equipment and software reaching the end of its useful life for depreciation purposes as we shift towards faster-growing, value-added service offerings which have significantly lower capital requirements than our legacy capital-intensive revenue streams.

As a percentage of revenue, cost of revenue increased 370 basis points in 2022 to 72.6% from 68.9% in 2021, primarily driven by a 640 basis point increase in usage charges for third-party infrastructure, partially offset by a decrease related to personnel costs, data center, and depreciation expense.

Gross Profit and Non-GAAP Gross Profit

Our consolidated gross profit was $857 million in 2022, a decrease of $80 million from $937 million in 2021. Our Non-GAAP Gross Profit was $884 million in 2022, a decrease of $112 million from $996 million in 2021. Non-GAAP Gross Profit is a non-GAAP financial measure. See “Non-GAAP Financial Measures” below for more information. Our consolidated gross margin was 27.4% in 2022, a decrease of 370 basis points from 31.1% in 2021.

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The table below presents a reconciliation of total consolidated gross profit to Non-GAAP Gross Profit, which represents the total of our individual segment gross profit measures.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions)","2021","","2022"],["Total consolidated gross profit","$","936.8","","","$","856.9"],["Share-based compensation expense","16.7","","","11.6"],["Other compensation expense (1)","2.7","","","1.9"],["Purchase accounting impact on expense (2)","4.7","","","2.7"],["Restructuring and transformation expenses (3)","35.5","","","10.9"],["Hosted Exchange incident expenses","\u2014","","","0.2"],["Non-GAAP Gross Profit","$","996.4","","","$","884.2"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["(1)","Adjustments for retention bonuses, mainly in connection with restructuring and transformation projects, and the related payroll tax, and payroll taxes associated with the exercise of stock options and vesting of restricted stock."],["(2)","Adjustment for the impact of purchase accounting from the Rackspace Acquisition on expenses."],["(3)","Adjustment for the impact of business transformation and optimization activities, as well as associated severance, facility closure costs and lease termination expenses. This amount also includes certain costs associated with the July 2021 Restructuring Plan which are not accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420, including one-time offshore build out costs."]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Our segment gross profit and gross margin for the periods indicated, and the change in gross profit between periods is shown in the table below:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,","","Year-Over-Year Comparison"],["(In millions, except %)","2021","","2022"],["Segment gross profit:","Amount","","% of Segment Revenue","","Amount","","% of Segment Revenue","","Amount","","% Change"],["Multicloud Services","$","793.4","","","32.4","%","","$","701.7","","","27.3","%","","$","(91.7)","","","(11.6)","%"],["Apps & Cross Platform","135.9","","","36.0","%","","139.2","","","35.1","%","","3.3","","","2.4","%"],["OpenStack Public Cloud","67.1","","","36.7","%","","43.3","","","28.8","%","","(23.8)","","","(35.5)","%"],["Non-GAAP Gross Profit","$","996.4","","","","","$","884.2","","","","","$","(112.2)","","","(11.3)","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Multicloud Services gross profit decreased by 12% in 2022 from 2021. Segment gross profit as a percentage of segment revenue decreased by 510 basis points, reflecting a 13% increase in segment cost of revenue and a 5% increase in segment revenue. The increase in costs was mainly driven by higher third-party infrastructure costs due to the increase in revenue in our growth offerings resulting in a larger proportion of these services within this segment, partially offset by lower personnel, data center, and depreciation expense.

Apps & Cross Platform gross profit increased 2% in 2022 from 2021. Segment gross profit as a percentage of segment revenue decreased by 90 basis points, reflecting a 7% increase in segment cost of revenue and a 5% increase in segment revenue.

OpenStack Public Cloud gross profit decreased 35% in 2022 from 2021 due to customer churn. Segment gross profit as a percentage of segment revenue decreased by 790 basis points, reflecting an 18% decrease in segment revenue, partially offset by a 7% decrease in segment cost of revenue.

The aggregate amount of costs reflected in consolidated gross profit but excluded from Non-GAAP Gross Profit was $27.3 million in 2022, a decrease of $32.3 million from $59.6 million in 2021, primarily driven by lower restructuring and transformation expenses and share-based compensation.

For more information about our segment gross profit, see Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 17, "Segment Reporting."

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Selling, General and Administrative Expenses

SG&A expenses decreased $52 million, or 6%, to $855 million in 2022 from $907 million in 2021, due to a decline in personnel costs from cost savings as a result of shifting roles to lower-cost locations as part of our continued focus on business optimization initiatives. We also had lower severance expense between periods. The prior period included $25 million of restructuring charges related to the July 2021 Restructuring Plan accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420, of which $14 million were personnel related costs. There were also reductions in costs related to other business optimization and integration initiatives compared to the prior period, as well as lower amortization expense related to certain intangible assets reaching the end of their useful life. These reductions in expense were partially offset by an increase in travel expense as a result of the easing of COVID-19 restrictions and costs incurred in 2022 related to the Hosted Exchange incident.

As a percentage of revenue, SG&A expenses decreased 270 basis points, to 27.4% in 2022 from 30.1% in 2021, for the reasons discussed above.

Impairment of Goodwill

During the third quarter of 2022, we experienced a sustained decline in our stock price resulting in our market capitalization being less than the carrying value of our combined reporting units. We performed an interim goodwill impairment analysis as of September 1, 2022 based on our assessment of several events and circumstances that affect the significant inputs used to determine the fair value of our reporting units, including the significance of the amount of excess carrying value over fair value, consistency of operating margins and cash flows, budgeted-to-actual performance from prior year, overall change in economic climate, changes in the industry and competitive environment, and earnings quality and sustainability. In addition, as of September 1, 2022, we lowered our projected operating results primarily due to product mix shifts and market concerns related to inflation and other macroeconomic factors. As a result, we determined that the carrying value of our Multicloud Services reporting unit exceeded its fair value and recorded an impairment of goodwill of $405 million during the third quarter of 2022.

The results of our annual goodwill impairment test as of October 1, 2022 did not indicate any impairments of goodwill.

During the fourth quarter of 2022, subsequent to our annual goodwill impairment analysis, we experienced a decline in our market capitalization following a ransomware incident in early December which caused service disruptions on our Hosted Exchange email business. We therefore determined it appropriate to perform an interim quantitative assessment of our reporting units as of December 31, 2022. As a result, we determined that the carrying value of our Apps & Cross Platform reporting unit exceeded its fair value and recorded an impairment of goodwill of $129 million during the fourth quarter of 2022.

As a result of our annual goodwill impairment test performed during the fourth quarter of 2021, we determined that the carrying amount of our OpenStack Public Cloud reporting unit exceeded its fair value and fully impaired its goodwill by recording a goodwill impairment charge of $52 million. The impairment was driven by deteriorating forecasted margins and cash flows within the reporting unit primarily due to operating costs declining at a slower rate than previously anticipated even after factoring in the long term impacts of the July 2021 Restructuring Plan.

See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 5, "Goodwill and Intangible Assets" for further discussion.

Impairment of Assets

We also evaluated our indefinite-lived intangible asset and long-lived assets for impairment as of September 1, 2022. As a result of these evaluations, we recorded total impairment charges of $59 million during the third quarter of 2022, consisting of a $21 million impairment of our indefinite-lived trade name intangible asset and a $38 million impairment of OpenStack Public Cloud long-lived assets.

As of December 31, 2022, we recorded an additional $12 million impairment of our indefinite-lived trade name intangible asset.

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In addition, as of December 31, 2022, our corporate headquarters property was classified as held for sale. The property's previous carrying amount of $83 million was written down to its estimated fair value, less estimated cost to sell, of $12 million, resulting in a $71 million impairment charge. We also wrote-off the remaining $5 million net book value of the related property tax abatement asset in connection with the held for sale classification.

There were no such impairments in 2021.

See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 4, "Property, Equipment and Software, net" and Note 5, "Goodwill and Intangible Assets" for further discussion.

Gain on Sale of Land

In January 2021, we recorded a $20 million gain related to the sale of a parcel of undeveloped land in the United Kingdom adjacent to one of our existing data centers, as further discussed in Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 4, "Property, Equipment and Software, net."

Debt Modification and Extinguishment Costs

In 2021, we recorded $37 million and $0.5 million of debt modification and extinguishment costs related to the February 2021 Refinancing Transaction and termination of the Receivables Financing Facility, respectively. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 6, "Debt" for further discussion.

Other Expense, Net

The increase in other expense, net to $10 million in 2022 from $1 million in 2021 is primarily related to foreign currency transaction losses.

Benefit for Income Taxes

Our income tax benefit increased by $62 million to $93 million in 2022 from $31 million in 2021. Our effective tax rate decreased from 12.4% in 2021 to 10.3% in 2022. The decrease in the effective tax rate year-over-year is primarily due to the tax impact associated with the goodwill impairments, the geographic distribution of profits and tax effects from nondeductible share-based compensation. The difference between the effective tax rate for 2022 and the statutory tax rate is primarily due to the tax impact associated with the goodwill impairments, the geographic distribution of profits, executive compensation that is nondeductible under IRC Section 162(m) and tax effects from nondeductible share-based compensation.

For a full reconciliation of our effective tax rate to the U.S. federal statutory rate and further explanation of our benefit for income taxes, see Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 13, "Taxes."

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Year Ended December 31, 2020 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2021

The following table sets forth our results of operations for the specified periods, as well as changes between periods and as a percentage of revenue for those same periods (totals in table may not foot due to rounding):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,","","Year-Over-Year Comparison"],["","2020","","2021"],["(In millions, except %)","Amount","","% Revenue","","Amount","","% Revenue","","Amount","","% Change"],["Revenue","$","2,707.1","","","100.0","%","","$","3,009.5","","","100.0","%","","$","302.4","","","11.2","%"],["Cost of revenue","(1,722.7)","","","(63.6)","%","","(2,072.7)","","","(68.9)","%","","(350.0)","","","20.3","%"],["Gross profit","984.4","","","36.4","%","","936.8","","","31.1","%","","(47.6)","","","(4.8)","%"],["Selling, general and administrative expenses","(959.7)","","","(35.4)","%","","(906.8)","","","(30.1)","%","","52.9","","","(5.5)","%"],["Impairment of goodwill","\u2014","","","\u2014","%","","(52.4)","","","(1.7)","%","","(52.4)","","","100.0","%"],["Gain on sale of land","\u2014","","","\u2014","%","","19.9","","","0.7","%","","19.9","","","100.0","%"],["Income (loss) from operations","24.7","","","0.9","%","","(2.5)","","","(0.1)","%","","(27.2)","","","NM"],["Other income (expense):"],["Interest expense","(268.4)","","","(9.9)","%","","(205.1)","","","(6.8)","%","","63.3","","","(23.6)","%"],["Gain (loss) on investments, net","0.7","","","0.0","%","","(3.0)","","","(0.1)","%","","(3.7)","","","NM"],["Debt modification and extinguishment costs","(71.5)","","","(2.6)","%","","(37.5)","","","(1.2)","%","","34.0","","","(47.6)","%"],["Other income (expense), net","2.5","","","0.1","%","","(1.0)","","","(0.0)","%","","(3.5)","","","NM"],["Total other income (expense)","(336.7)","","","(12.4)","%","","(246.6)","","","(8.2)","%","","90.1","","","(26.8)","%"],["Loss before income taxes","(312.0)","","","(11.5)","%","","(249.1)","","","(8.3)","%","","62.9","","","(20.2)","%"],["Benefit for income taxes","66.2","","","2.4","%","","30.8","","","1.0","%","","(35.4)","","","(53.5)","%"],["Net loss","$","(245.8)","","","(9.1)","%","","$","(218.3)","","","(7.3)","%","","$","27.5","","","(11.2)","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

NM = not meaningful.

Revenue

Revenue increased $302 million, or 11.2%, to $3,010 million in 2021 from $2,707 million in 2020. Revenue was positively impacted by new customer acquisition and growing customer spend in our Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform segments, as discussed below.

After removing the impact from foreign currency fluctuations, on a constant currency basis, revenue increased 10.1% year-over-year. The following table presents revenue growth by segment:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,","","% Change"],["(In millions, except %)","2020","","2021","","Actual","","Constant Currency (1)"],["Multicloud Services","$","2,141.5","","","$","2,449.1","","","14.4","%","","13.2","%"],["Apps & Cross Platform","336.6","","","377.6","","","12.2","%","","11.6","%"],["Core Revenue","2,478.1","","","2,826.7","","","14.1","%","","13.0","%"],["OpenStack Public Cloud","229.0","","","182.8","","","(20.2)","%","","(21.3)","%"],["Total","$","2,707.1","","","$","3,009.5","","","11.2","%","","10.1","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

(1)     Refer to "Non-GAAP Financial Measures" in this section for further explanation and reconciliation.

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Multicloud Services revenue in 2021 increased 14% on an actual basis, and 13% on a constant currency basis, from 2020. Underlying growth was primarily driven by both the acquisition of new customers and increased spend by existing customers, partially offset by cancellations by existing customers. Growth offerings such as managed public cloud services and Rackspace Services for VMware Cloud represented approximately 75% of the Multicloud Services segment in 2021, and revenue from these growth offerings increased 30% in 2021 compared to 2020. This growth was partially offset by a decrease in revenue from mature offerings such as managed hosting and colocation services.

Apps & Cross Platform revenue in 2021 increased 12%, on an actual and constant currency basis, from 2020, due to growth in our offerings for managed security and management of productivity and collaboration applications, partially offset by a decrease in professional services revenue.

OpenStack Public Cloud revenue in 2021 decreased 20% on an actual basis, and 21% on a constant currency basis, from 2020 due to customer churn.

Cost of Revenue

Cost of revenue increased $350 million, or 20%, to $2,073 million in 2021 from $1,723 million in 2020, primarily due to an increase in usage charges for third-party infrastructure associated with growth in these offerings and the impact of an increased volume of larger, multi-year customer contracts which typically have a larger infrastructure component and lower margins. The increase in third-party infrastructure was partially offset by a decline in personnel costs primarily due to cost savings as a result of shifting roles to lower-cost locations as part of our continued focus on business optimization initiatives, including the July 2021 Restructuring Plan. Depreciation expense also decreased between periods primarily related to certain property, equipment and software reaching the end of its useful life for depreciation purposes as we shift towards faster-growing, value-added service offerings which have significantly lower capital requirements than our legacy capital-intensive revenue streams. Additionally, in March 2021, we completed an assessment of the useful lives of certain customer gear equipment, which resulted in a revision of certain useful lives within our policy ranges, further contributing to the reduction in depreciation expense. We also had year-over-year expense reductions in data center and license expenses as a result of initiatives to lower our cost structure, which included the consolidation of data center facilities and optimizing our vendor license spending.

As a percentage of revenue, cost of revenue increased 530 basis points in 2021 to 68.9% from 63.6% in 2020, primarily driven by a 1,270 basis point increase in usage charges for third-party infrastructure, partially offset by a decrease related to personnel costs, depreciation, data center, and license expense.

Gross Profit and Non-GAAP Gross Profit

Our consolidated gross profit was $937 million in 2021, a decrease of $48 million from $984 million in 2020. Our Non-GAAP Gross Profit was $996 million in 2021, a decrease of $30 million from $1,026 million in 2020. Non-GAAP Gross Profit is a non-GAAP financial measure. See “Non-GAAP Financial Measures” below for more information. Our consolidated gross margin was 31.1% in 2021, a decrease of 530 basis points from 36.4% in 2020.

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The table below presents a reconciliation of total consolidated gross profit to Non-GAAP Gross Profit, which represents the total of our individual segment gross profit measures.

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions)","2020","","2021"],["Total consolidated gross profit","$","984.4","","","$","936.8"],["Share-based compensation expense","14.5","","","16.7"],["Other compensation expense (1)","5.9","","","2.7"],["Purchase accounting impact on expense (2)","5.9","","","4.7"],["Restructuring and transformation expenses (3)","15.3","","","35.5"],["Non-GAAP Gross Profit","$","1,026.0","","","$","996.4"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["(1)","Adjustments for retention bonuses, mainly in connection with restructuring and transformation projects, and the related payroll tax, and payroll taxes associated with the exercise of stock options and vesting of restricted stock."],["(2)","Adjustment for the impact of purchase accounting from the Rackspace Acquisition on expenses."],["(3)","Adjustment for the impact of business transformation and optimization activities, as well as associated severance, facility closure costs and lease termination expenses. This amount also includes certain costs associated with the July 2021 Restructuring Plan which are not accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420, including one-time offshore build out costs."]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Our segment gross profit and gross margin for the periods indicated, and the change in gross profit between periods is shown in the table below:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,","","Year-Over-Year Comparison"],["(In millions, except %)","2020","","2021"],["Segment gross profit:","Amount","","% of Segment Revenue","","Amount","","% of Segment Revenue","","Amount","","% Change"],["Multicloud Services","$","810.2","","","37.8","%","","$","793.4","","","32.4","%","","$","(16.8)","","","(2.1)","%"],["Apps & Cross Platform","115.5","","","34.3","%","","135.9","","","36.0","%","","20.4","","","17.7","%"],["OpenStack Public Cloud","100.3","","","43.8","%","","67.1","","","36.7","%","","(33.2)","","","(33.1)","%"],["Non-GAAP Gross Profit","$","1,026.0","","","","","$","996.4","","","","","$","(29.6)","","","(2.9)","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Multicloud Services gross profit decreased by 2% in 2021 from 2020. Segment gross profit as a percentage of segment revenue decreased by 540 basis points, reflecting a 24% increase in segment cost of revenue and a 14% increase in segment revenue. The increase in costs was mainly driven by higher third-party infrastructure costs due to the increase in revenue in our growth offerings resulting in a larger proportion of these services within this segment, partially offset by lower personnel, depreciation, data center and license expense.

Apps & Cross Platform gross profit increased 18% in 2021 from 2020. Segment gross profit as a percentage of segment revenue increased by 170 basis points, reflecting a 9% increase in segment cost of revenue and a 12% increase in segment revenue. The increase in cost of revenue was primarily driven by the segment’s higher business volume as well as higher third-party infrastructure costs.

OpenStack Public Cloud gross profit decreased 33% in 2021 from 2020 due to customer churn. Segment gross profit as a percentage of segment revenue decreased by 710 basis points, reflecting a 20% decrease in segment revenue, partially offset by a 10% decrease in segment cost of revenue.

The aggregate amount of costs reflected in consolidated gross profit but excluded from Non-GAAP Gross Profit was $59.6 million in 2021, an increase of $18.0 million from $41.6 million in 2020, reflecting higher restructuring and transformation expenses and share-based compensation, partially offset by lower purchase accounting adjustments and other compensation expense.

For more information about our segment gross profit, see Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 17, "Segment Reporting."

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Selling, General and Administrative Expenses

SG&A expenses decreased $53 million, or 6%, to $907 million in 2021 from $960 million in 2020. The reduction was driven by costs incurred in the prior year related to Onica Holdings LLC integration, IPO related expenses, and management consulting fees as the agreements were terminated in connection with the IPO. This reduction was partially offset by costs incurred in 2021 related to the July 2021 Restructuring Plan including $25 million of restructuring charges accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420. Other cost increases between periods include costs related to other business transformation initiatives and incremental costs to operate as a public company. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 10, "July 2021 Restructuring Plan" for additional information regarding the current period restructuring charges.

As a percentage of revenue, SG&A expenses decreased 530 basis points, to 30.1% in 2021 from 35.4% in 2020, for the reasons discussed above.

Impairment of Goodwill

As a result of our annual goodwill impairment test performed during the fourth quarter of 2021, we determined that the carrying amount of our OpenStack Public Cloud reporting unit exceeded its fair value and fully impaired its goodwill by recording a goodwill impairment charge of $52 million. The impairment was driven by deteriorating forecasted margins and cash flows within the reporting unit primarily due to operating costs declining at a slower rate than previously anticipated even after factoring in the long term impacts of the July 2021 Restructuring Plan. There was no such impairment in 2020. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 5, "Goodwill and Intangible Assets" for further discussion.

Gain on Sale of Land

In January 2021, we recorded a $20 million gain related to the sale of a parcel of undeveloped land in the United Kingdom adjacent to one of our existing data centers, as further discussed in Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 4, "Property, Equipment and Software, net."

Interest Expense

Interest expense decreased $63 million to $205 million in 2021 from $268 million in 2020, primarily driven by a reduction in total debt outstanding and lower interest rates as a result of significant debt refinancing transactions between periods.

Debt Modification and Extinguishment Costs

In 2021, we recorded $37 million and $0.5 million of debt modification and extinguishment costs related to the February 2021 Refinancing Transaction and termination of the Receivables Financing Facility, respectively. In 2020, we recorded $72 million of debt modification and extinguishment costs related to the repayment of $1,120 million aggregate principal amount of 8.625% Senior Notes. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 6, "Debt" for further discussion.

Benefit for Income Taxes

Our income tax benefit decreased by $35 million to $31 million in 2021 from $66 million in 2020. Our effective tax rate decreased from 21.2% in 2020 to 12.4% in 2021. The decrease in the effective tax rate year-over-year is primarily due to the geographic distribution of profits, the tax impact associated with goodwill impairment and changes in income tax reserves. The difference between the effective rate for 2021 and the statutory rate is primarily due to the geographic distribution of profits, the tax impact associated with goodwill impairment and executive compensation that is nondeductible under IRC Section 162(m) as a result of the IPO.

For a full reconciliation of our effective tax rate to the U.S. federal statutory rate and further explanation of our benefit for income taxes, see Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 13, "Taxes."

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Non-GAAP Financial Measures

We track several non-GAAP financial measures to monitor and manage our underlying financial performance. The following discussion includes the presentation of constant currency revenue, Non-GAAP Gross Profit, Non-GAAP Net Income (Loss), Non-GAAP Operating Profit, Adjusted EBITDA and Non-GAAP EPS, which are non-GAAP financial measures that exclude the impact of certain costs, losses and gains that are required to be included in our profit and loss measures under GAAP. Although we believe these measures are useful to investors and analysts for the same reasons they are useful to management, as discussed below, these measures are not a substitute for, or superior to, U.S. GAAP financial measures or disclosures. Other companies may calculate similarly-titled non-GAAP measures differently, limiting their usefulness as comparative measures. We have reconciled each of these non-GAAP measures to the applicable most comparable GAAP measure throughout this MD&A.

Constant Currency Revenue

We use constant currency revenue as an additional metric for understanding and assessing our growth excluding the effect of foreign currency rate fluctuations on our international business operations. Constant currency information compares results between periods as if exchange rates had remained constant period over period and is calculated by translating the non-U.S. dollar income statement balances for the most current period to U.S. dollars using the average exchange rate from the comparative period rather than the actual exchange rates in effect during the respective period. We also believe this is an important metric to help investors evaluate our performance in comparison to prior periods.

The following tables present, by segment, actual and constant currency revenue and constant currency revenue growth rates, for and between the periods indicated:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31, 2021","","Year Ended December 31, 2022","","% Change"],["(In millions, except %)","Revenue","","Revenue","","Foreign Currency Translation (a)","","Revenue in Constant Currency","","Actual","","Constant Currency"],["Multicloud Services","$","2,449.1","","","$","2,574.9","","","$","37.6","","","$","2,612.5","","","5.1","%","","6.7","%"],["Apps & Cross Platform","377.6","","","396.9","","","3.1","","","400.0","","","5.1","%","","5.9","%"],["OpenStack Public Cloud","182.8","","","150.5","","","2.9","","","153.4","","","(17.7)","%","","(16.1)","%"],["Total","$","3,009.5","","","$","3,122.3","","","$","43.6","","","$","3,165.9","","","3.7","%","","5.2","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["(a)","The effect of foreign currency is calculated by translating current period results using the average exchange rate from the prior comparative period."]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31, 2020","","Year Ended December 31, 2021","","% Change"],["(In millions, except %)","Revenue","","Revenue","","Foreign Currency Translation (a)","","Revenue in Constant Currency","","Actual","","Constant Currency"],["Multicloud Services","$","2,141.5","","","$","2,449.1","","","$","(23.9)","","","$","2,425.2","","","14.4","%","","13.2","%"],["Apps & Cross Platform","336.6","","","377.6","","","(2.1)","","","375.5","","","12.2","%","","11.6","%"],["OpenStack Public Cloud","229.0","","","182.8","","","(2.6)","","","180.2","","","(20.2)","%","","(21.3)","%"],["Total","$","2,707.1","","","$","3,009.5","","","$","(28.6)","","","$","2,980.9","","","11.2","%","","10.1","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["(a)","The effect of foreign currency is calculated by translating current period results using the average exchange rate from the prior comparative period."]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

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Non-GAAP Gross Profit

We present Non-GAAP Gross Profit in this MD&A, which represents the total of our individual segment gross profit measures, because we believe the measure is useful in analyzing trends in our underlying, recurring gross margins. We define Non-GAAP Gross Profit as our consolidated gross profit, adjusted to exclude the impact of share-based compensation expense and other non-recurring or unusual compensation items, purchase accounting-related effects, certain business transformation-related costs, and costs related to the Hosted Exchange incident. For a reconciliation of total consolidated gross profit to Non-GAAP Gross Profit, see “Gross Profit and Non-GAAP Gross Profit” in the year-over-year comparisons under "Results of Operations" above.

Non-GAAP Net Income (Loss), Non-GAAP Operating Profit and Adjusted EBITDA

We present Non-GAAP Net Income (Loss), Non-GAAP Operating Profit and Adjusted EBITDA because they are a basis upon which management assesses our performance and we believe they are useful to evaluating our financial performance. We believe that excluding items from net income that may not be indicative of, or are unrelated to, our core operating results, and that may vary in frequency or magnitude, enhances the comparability of our results and provides a better baseline for analyzing trends in our business.

The Rackspace Acquisition was structured as a leveraged buyout of Rackspace Technology Global, our predecessor, and resulted in several accounting and capital structure impacts. For example, the revaluation of our assets and liabilities resulted in a significant increase in our amortizable intangible assets and goodwill, the incurrence of a significant amount of debt to partially finance the Rackspace Acquisition resulted in interest payments that reflect our high leverage and cost of debt capital, and the conversion of Rackspace Technology Global’s unvested equity compensation into a cash-settled bonus plan and obligation to pay management fees to our equityholders resulted in new cash commitments. In addition, the change in ownership and management resulting from the Rackspace Acquisition led to a strategic realignment in our operations that had a significant impact on our financial results. Following the Rackspace Acquisition, we acquired several businesses, sold businesses and investments that we deemed to be non-core and launched multiple integration and business transformation initiatives intended to improve the efficiency of people and operations and identify recurring cost savings and new revenue growth opportunities. We believe that these transactions and activities resulted in costs, which have historically been substantial, and that may not be indicative of, or are not related to, our core operating results, including interest related to the incurrence of additional debt to finance acquisitions and third party legal, advisory and consulting fees and severance, retention bonus and other internal costs that we believe would not have been incurred in the absence of these transactions and activities and also may not be indicative of, or related to, our core operating results.

We define Non-GAAP Net Income (Loss) as net income (loss) adjusted to exclude the impact of non-cash charges for share-based compensation, special bonuses and other compensation expense, transaction-related costs and adjustments, restructuring and transformation charges, costs related to the Hosted Exchange incident, management fees, the amortization of acquired intangible assets, goodwill and asset impairment charges, and certain other non-operating, non-recurring or non-core gains and losses, as well as the tax effects of these non-GAAP adjustments.

We define Non-GAAP Operating Profit as income (loss) from operations adjusted to exclude the impact of non-cash charges for share-based compensation, special bonuses and other compensation expense, transaction-related costs and adjustments, restructuring and transformation charges, costs related to the Hosted Exchange incident, management fees, the amortization of acquired intangible assets, goodwill and asset impairment charges, and certain other non-operating, non-recurring or non-core gains and losses.

We define Adjusted EBITDA as net income (loss) adjusted to exclude the impact of non-cash charges for share-based compensation, special bonuses and other compensation expense, transaction-related costs and adjustments, restructuring and transformation charges, costs related to the Hosted Exchange incident, management fees, certain other non-operating, non-recurring or non-core gains and losses, interest expense, income taxes, depreciation and amortization, and goodwill and asset impairment charges.

Non-GAAP Operating Profit and Adjusted EBITDA are management’s principal metrics for measuring our underlying financial performance. Non-GAAP Operating Profit and Adjusted EBITDA, along with other quantitative and qualitative information, are also the principal financial measures used by management and our board of directors in determining performance-based compensation for our management and key employees.

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These non-GAAP measures are not intended to imply that we would have generated higher income or avoided net losses if the Rackspace Acquisition and the subsequent transactions and initiatives had not occurred. In the future we may incur expenses or charges such as those added back to calculate Non-GAAP Net Income (Loss), Non-GAAP Operating Profit or Adjusted EBITDA. Our presentation of Non-GAAP Net Income (Loss), Non-GAAP Operating Profit and Adjusted EBITDA should not be construed as an inference that our future results will be unaffected by these items. Other companies, including our peer companies, may calculate similarly-titled measures in a different manner from us, and therefore, our non-GAAP measures may not be comparable to similarly-tiled measures of other companies. Investors are cautioned against using these measures to the exclusion of our results in accordance with GAAP.

The following tables present a reconciliation of Non-GAAP Net Income, Non-GAAP Operating Profit and Adjusted EBITDA to the most directly comparable GAAP financial measures:

Net loss reconciliation to Non-GAAP Net Income

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions)","2020","","2021","","2022"],["Net loss","$","(245.8)","","","$","(218.3)","","","$","(804.8)"],["Share-based compensation expense","74.5","","","75.4","","","69.5"],["Special bonuses and other compensation expense (a)","37.5","","","11.8","","","10.0"],["Transaction-related adjustments, net (b)","46.7","","","25.7","","","11.0"],["Restructuring and transformation expenses (c)","104.8","","","161.5","","","99.0"],["Hosted Exchange incident expenses","\u2014","","","\u2014","","","5.9"],["Management fees (d)","8.4","","","\u2014","","","\u2014"],["Impairment of goodwill","\u2014","","","52.4","","","534.5"],["Impairment of assets","\u2014","","","\u2014","","","146.1"],["Gain on sale of land","\u2014","","","(19.9)","","","\u2014"],["Net (gain) loss on divestiture and investments (e)","(0.7)","","","3.0","","","0.2"],["Debt modification and extinguishment costs (f)","71.5","","","37.5","","","\u2014"],["Other (income) expense, net (g)","(2.5)","","","1.0","","","10.0"],["Amortization of intangible assets (h)","176.3","","","179.7","","","166.8"],["Tax effect of non-GAAP adjustments (i)","(119.4)","","","(103.3)","","","(133.3)"],["Non-GAAP Net Income","$","151.3","","","$","206.5","","","$","114.9"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Income (loss) from operations reconciliation to Non-GAAP Operating Profit

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions)","2020","","2021","","2022"],["Income (loss) from operations","$","24.7","","","$","(2.5)","","","$","(679.0)"],["Share-based compensation expense","74.5","","","75.4","","","69.5"],["Special bonuses and other compensation expense (a)","37.5","","","11.8","","","10.0"],["Transaction-related adjustments, net (b)","46.7","","","25.7","","","11.0"],["Restructuring and transformation expenses (c)","104.8","","","161.5","","","99.0"],["Hosted Exchange incident expenses","\u2014","","","\u2014","","","5.9"],["Management fees (d)","8.4","","","\u2014","","","\u2014"],["Impairment of goodwill","\u2014","","","52.4","","","534.5"],["Impairment of assets","\u2014","","","\u2014","","","146.1"],["Gain on sale of land","\u2014","","","(19.9)","","","\u2014"],["Amortization of intangible assets (h)","176.3","","","179.7","","","166.8"],["Non-GAAP Operating Profit","$","472.9","","","$","484.1","","","$","363.8"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

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Net loss reconciliation to Adjusted EBITDA

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions)","2020","","2021","","2022"],["Net loss","$","(245.8)","","","$","(218.3)","","","$","(804.8)"],["Share-based compensation expense","74.5","","","75.4","","","69.5"],["Special bonuses and other compensation expense (a)","37.5","","","11.8","","","10.0"],["Transaction-related adjustments, net (b)","46.7","","","25.7","","","11.0"],["Restructuring and transformation expenses (c)","104.8","","","161.5","","","99.0"],["Hosted Exchange incident expenses","\u2014","","","\u2014","","","5.9"],["Management fees (d)","8.4","","","\u2014","","","\u2014"],["Impairment of goodwill","\u2014","","","52.4","","","534.5"],["Impairment of assets","\u2014","","","\u2014","","","146.1"],["Gain on sale of land","\u2014","","","(19.9)","","","\u2014"],["Net (gain) loss on divestiture and investments (e)","(0.7)","","","3.0","","","0.2"],["Debt modification and extinguishment costs (f)","71.5","","","37.5","","","\u2014"],["Other (income) expense, net (g)","(2.5)","","","1.0","","","10.0"],["Interest expense","268.4","","","205.1","","","208.5"],["Benefit for income taxes","(66.2)","","","(30.8)","","","(92.9)"],["Depreciation and amortization (j)","466.2","","","421.4","","","387.5"],["Adjusted EBITDA","$","762.8","","","$","725.8","","","$","584.5"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["(a)","Includes expense related to retention bonuses, mainly relating to restructuring and integration projects, and the related payroll tax, senior executive signing bonuses and relocation costs, and payroll taxes associated with the exercise of stock options and vesting of restricted stock. The year ended December 31, 2020 also includes $13 million for one-time cash bonuses related to successful completion of the IPO."],["(b)","Includes legal, professional, accounting and other advisory fees related to acquisitions and the IPO, certain one-time costs related to being a first year public company, integration costs of acquired businesses, purchase accounting adjustments (including deferred revenue fair value discount), payroll costs for employees that dedicate significant time to supporting these projects and exploratory acquisition and divestiture costs and expenses related to financing activities."],["(c)","Includes consulting and advisory fees related to business transformation and optimization activities, payroll costs for employees that dedicate significant time to these projects, as well as associated severance, facility closure costs and lease termination expenses. This amount also includes employee related costs and other costs related to the July 2021 Restructuring Plan of $25.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2021, which are accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420. In addition, it includes certain costs associated with the July 2021 Restructuring Plan which are not accounted for as exit and disposal costs under ASC 420, including one-time offshore build out costs."],["(d)","Represents historical management fees pursuant to management consulting agreements. The management consulting agreements were terminated effective August 4, 2020, and therefore no management fees have accrued or will be payable for periods after August 4, 2020."],["(e)","Includes gains and losses on investment and from dispositions."],["(f)","Includes expenses related to repurchases of 8.625% Senior Notes, the February 2021 Refinancing Transaction and termination of the Receivables Financing Facility."],["(g)","Reflects changes in the fair value of foreign currency derivatives and other foreign currency gains and losses."],["(h)","All of our intangible assets are attributable to acquisitions, including the Rackspace Acquisition in 2016."],["(i)","We utilize an estimated structural long-term non-GAAP tax rate in order to provide consistency across reporting periods, removing the effect of non-recurring tax adjustments, which include but are not limited to tax rate changes, U.S. tax reform, share-based compensation, audit conclusions and changes to valuation allowances. We used a structural non-GAAP tax rate of 26% for all periods which reflects the removal of the tax effect of non-GAAP pre-tax adjustments and non-recurring tax adjustments on a year-over-year basis. The non-GAAP tax rate could be subject to change for a variety of reasons, including the rapidly evolving global tax environment, significant changes in our geographic earnings mix including due to acquisition activity, or other changes to our strategy or business operations. We will re-evaluate our long-term non-GAAP tax rate as appropriate. We believe that making these adjustments facilitates a better evaluation of our current operating performance and comparisons to prior periods."],["(j)","Excludes accelerated depreciation expense related to facility closures."]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

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Non-GAAP Earnings Per Share

We define Non-GAAP EPS as Non-GAAP Net Income divided by our GAAP weighted average number of shares outstanding for the period on a diluted basis, after giving effect to the twelve-for-one stock split that was approved and effected by our board of directors on July 20, 2020, and further adjusted for the weighted average number of shares associated with securities which are anti-dilutive to GAAP EPS but dilutive to Non-GAAP EPS. Management uses Non-GAAP EPS to evaluate the performance of our business on a comparable basis from period to period, including by adjusting for the impact of the issuance of shares that would be dilutive to Non-GAAP EPS. The following table reconciles Non-GAAP EPS to our GAAP net loss per share on a diluted basis:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions, except per share amounts)","2020","","2021","","2022"],["Net loss attributable to common stockholders","$","(245.8)","","","$","(218.3)","","","$","(804.8)"],["Non-GAAP Net Income","$","151.3","","","$","206.5","","","$","114.9"],["Weighted average number of shares - Diluted","179.6","","","208.0","","","211.2"],["Effect of dilutive securities (a)","3.7","","","4.2","","","1.3"],["Non-GAAP weighted average number of shares - Diluted","183.3","","","212.2","","","212.5"],["Net loss per share - Diluted","$","(1.37)","","","$","(1.05)","","","$","(3.81)"],["Per share impacts of adjustments to net loss (b)","2.21","","","2.04","","","4.35"],["Per share impacts of shares dilutive after adjustments to net loss (a)","(0.01)","","","(0.02)","","","0.00"],["Non-GAAP EPS","$","0.83","","","$","0.97","","","$","0.54"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["(a)","Reflects impact of awards that would have been anti-dilutive to net loss per share, and therefore not included in the calculation, but would be dilutive to Non-GAAP EPS and are therefore included in the share count for purposes of this non-GAAP measure. Potential common share equivalents consist of shares issuable upon the exercise of stock options, vesting of restricted stock units (including performance-based restricted stock units) or purchases under the ESPP, as well as contingent shares associated with our acquisition of Datapipe. Certain of our potential common share equivalents are contingent on Apollo achieving pre-established performance targets based on a MOIC, which are included in the denominator for the entire period if such shares would be issuable as of the end of the reporting period assuming the end of the reporting period was the end of the contingency period."],["(b)","Reflects the aggregate adjustments made to reconcile Non-GAAP Net Income to our net loss, as noted in the above table, divided by the GAAP diluted number of shares outstanding for the relevant period."]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

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Liquidity and Capital Resources

Overview

We primarily finance our operations and capital expenditures with internally-generated cash from operations and hardware leases, and if necessary, borrowings under our Revolving Credit Facility. As of December 31, 2022, the Revolving Credit Facility provided for up to $375 million of borrowings, none of which was drawn as of December 31, 2022. Our primary uses of cash are working capital requirements, debt service requirements and capital expenditures. Based on our current level of operations and available cash, we believe our sources will provide sufficient liquidity over at least the next twelve months. We cannot provide assurance, however, that our business will generate sufficient cash flows from operations or that future borrowings will be available to us under the Revolving Credit Facility or from other sources in an amount sufficient to enable us to pay our indebtedness or to fund our other liquidity needs. Our ability to do so depends on prevailing economic conditions and other factors, many of which are beyond our control. In addition, upon the occurrence of certain events, such as a change of control, we could be required to repay or refinance our indebtedness. We cannot assure that we will be able to refinance any of our indebtedness, including the Senior Facilities, the 5.375% Senior Notes and the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes, on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Any future acquisitions, joint ventures or other similar transactions will likely require additional capital, and there can be no assurance that any such capital will be available to us on acceptable terms or at all.

From time to time, depending upon market and other conditions, as well as upon our cash balances and liquidity, we, our subsidiaries or our affiliates may acquire (and have acquired) our outstanding debt securities or our other indebtedness through open market purchases, privately negotiated transactions, tender offers, redemption or otherwise, upon such terms and at such prices as we, our subsidiaries or our affiliates may determine (or as may be provided for in the Indentures, if applicable), for cash or other consideration.

On August 7, 2020, we completed the IPO, in which we issued and sold 33,500,000 shares of our common stock at a public offering price of $21.00 per share. We received net proceeds of $667 million from sales of shares in the IPO, after deducting underwriters' discounts and commissions of $37 million, but before deducting offering expenses of $9 million. We used a portion of the net proceeds from the IPO to repurchase $601 million aggregate principal amount of the 8.625% Senior Notes for aggregate cash of $647 million, including related premiums, fees and expenses. The remaining amount of net proceeds were used for general corporate purposes.

On February 2, 2021, we issued 2,665,935 shares of common stock to DPH 123, LLC, an ABRY affiliate, for no additional consideration pursuant to the Agreement and Plan of Merger, dated as of September 6, 2017, (the "Datapipe Merger Agreement") in connection with our November 15, 2017 acquisition of Datapipe. We will be required to issue additional shares of our common stock to DPH 123, LLC based on the MOIC exceeding certain thresholds as defined in the Datapipe Merger Agreement. If the MOIC exceeds 3.0x, which is indicated by a volume weighted average trading price of our common stock over 30 consecutive trading days of more than $25.00, we will be required to issue an additional 2,665,935 shares.

On March 3, 2022, our board of directors authorized a program to repurchase up to $75 million of shares of our common stock from time to time through open-market transactions, privately negotiated transactions, accelerated share repurchases and other transactions in accordance with applicable security laws. During the year ended December 31, 2022, we repurchased $31 million, or 3.1 million shares, of our common stock on the open market under this program. As of December 31, 2022, approximately $44 million of the amount authorized by the board under the current program remained available for additional purchases.

At December 31, 2022, we held $228 million in cash and cash equivalents (not including $3 million in restricted cash, which is included in "Other non-current assets"), of which $147 million was held by foreign entities.

We have entered into installment payment arrangements with certain equipment and software vendors, along with sale-leaseback arrangements for equipment and certain property leases that are considered financing obligations. We had $64 million outstanding with respect to these arrangements as of December 31, 2022. We may choose to utilize these various sources of funding in future periods. Refer to Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 8, "Financing Obligations" for more information regarding financing obligations.

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We also lease certain equipment and real estate under operating and finance lease agreements. We had $517 million outstanding with respect to operating and finance lease agreements as of December 31, 2022. We may choose to utilize such leasing arrangements in future periods. Refer to Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 7, "Leases" for more information regarding our operating and finance leases.

As of December 31, 2022, we had $3,360 million aggregate principal amount outstanding under our Term Loan Facility, 5.375% Senior Notes, and 3.50% Senior Secured Notes, with $375 million of borrowing capacity available under the Revolving Credit Facility. Our liquidity requirements are significant, primarily due to debt service requirements.

Debt

Senior Facilities

On February 9, 2021, we amended and restated the First Lien Credit Agreement, which included a new seven-year $2,300 million senior secured first lien term loan facility (the Term Loan Facility) and our existing Revolving Credit Facility, which we refer to together as the Senior Facilities. We used the borrowings under the Term Loan Facility, together with the proceeds from the issuance of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes described below, to repay all borrowings under the Prior Term Loan Facility, to pay related fees and expenses and for general corporate purposes. The Term Loan Facility will mature on February 15, 2028 and the Revolving Credit Facility will mature on August 7, 2025. We may request one or more incremental term loan facilities, one or more incremental revolving credit facilities and/or increase the commitments under the Revolving Credit Facility in an amount equal to the greater of $860 million and 1.0x Pro Forma Adjusted EBITDA (as defined in the amended First Lien Credit Agreement), plus additional amounts, subject to compliance with applicable leverage ratios and certain terms and conditions.

Borrowings under the Senior Facilities bear interest at an annual rate equal to an applicable margin plus, at our option, either (a) a LIBOR rate determined by reference to the costs of funds for Eurodollar deposits for the interest period relevant to such borrowing, adjusted for certain additional costs, subject to a 0.75% floor, in the case of the Term Loan Facility and a 1.00% floor, in the case of the Revolving Credit Facility, or (b) a base rate determined by reference to the highest of (i) the federal funds rate plus 0.50%, (ii) the prime rate of Citi and (iii) the one-month adjusted LIBOR plus 1.00%. The applicable margin for the Term Loan Facility is 2.75% for LIBOR loans and 1.75% for base rate loans and the applicable margin for the Revolving Credit Facility is 3.00% for LIBOR loans and 2.00% for base rate loans. Interest is due at the end of each interest period elected, not exceeding 90 days, for LIBOR loans and at the end of every calendar quarter for base rate loans.

The Revolving Credit Facility also includes a commitment fee equal to 0.50% per annum in respect of the unused commitments that is due quarterly. This fee is subject to one step-down based on the net first lien leverage ratio.

As of December 31, 2022, the interest rate on the Term Loan Facility was 7.38% and the outstanding principal balance was $2,260 million. We are required to make quarterly principal payments in the amount equal to 0.25% of the original principal amount of the Term Loan Facility, or $5.8 million, which began on June 30, 2021, with the balance due at maturity on February 15, 2028.

We have entered into interest rate swap agreements to manage the interest rate risk associated with interest payments on the Term Loan Facility that result from fluctuations in the LIBOR rate. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 14, "Derivatives" for more information on the interest rate swap agreements.

In addition to the quarterly amortization payments discussed above, our Senior Facilities require us to make certain mandatory prepayments, including using (i) a portion of annual excess cash flow, as defined in the First Lien Credit Agreement, to prepay the Term Loan Facility, (ii) net cash proceeds of certain non-ordinary assets sales or dispositions of property to prepay the Term Loan Facility and (iii) net cash proceeds of any issuance or incurrence of debt not permitted under the Senior Facilities to prepay the Term Loan Facility. We can make voluntary prepayments at any time without penalty, except in connection with a repricing event, as defined in the First Lien Credit Agreement.

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Rackspace Technology Global, our wholly-owned subsidiary, is the borrower under the Senior Facilities, and all obligations under the Senior Facilities are (i) guaranteed by Inception Parent, Rackspace Technology Global’s immediate parent company, on a limited recourse basis and secured by the equity interests of Rackspace Technology Global held by Inception Parent and (ii) guaranteed by Rackspace Technology Global’s wholly-owned domestic restricted subsidiaries and secured by substantially all material owned assets of Rackspace Technology Global and the subsidiary guarantors, including the equity interests held by each, in each case subject to certain exceptions.

During 2022, there were no borrowings under the Revolving Credit Facility and we had no outstanding borrowings under the Revolving Credit Facility or letters of credit issued thereunder as of December 31, 2022.

3.50% Senior Secured Notes

On February 9, 2021, Rackspace Technology Global issued $550 million aggregate principal amount of 3.50% Senior Secured Notes. The 3.50% Senior Secured Notes will mature on February 15, 2028 and bear interest at an annual fixed rate of 3.50%. Interest is payable semiannually on each February 15 and August 15, commencing on August 15, 2021. The 3.50% Senior Secured Notes are not subject to registration rights. As noted above, we used the net proceeds from the issuance of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes, together with borrowings under the Term Loan Facility described above, to repay all borrowings outstanding under the Prior Term Loan Facility, to pay related fees and expenses and for general corporate purposes.

Rackspace Technology Global is the issuer of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes, and obligations under the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes are fully and unconditionally guaranteed, jointly and severally, by all of Rackspace Technology Global’s wholly-owned domestic restricted subsidiaries (as subsidiary guarantors) that guarantee the Senior Facilities. The 3.50% Senior Secured Notes and the related guarantees are secured by first-priority security interests in substantially all material owned assets of Rackspace Technology Global and the subsidiary guarantors, including the equity interest held by each, subject to certain exceptions, which assets also secure the Senior Facilities. The 3.50% Notes Indenture describes certain terms and conditions under which other current and future domestic subsidiaries are required to become guarantors of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes.

Rackspace Technology Global may redeem the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes at its option, in whole at any time or in part from time to time, at the following redemption prices: prior to February 15, 2024, at a redemption price equal to 100.000% of the principal amount, plus the applicable premium described in the 3.50% Notes Indenture and accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date; from February 15, 2024 to February 14, 2025, at a redemption price equal to 101.750% of the principal amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date; from February 15, 2025 to February 14, 2026, at a redemption price equal to 100.875% of the principal amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date; and from February 15, 2026 and thereafter, at a redemption price equal to 100.000% of the principal amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date. Rackspace Technology Global may also redeem prior to February 15, 2024 up to 40.0% of the aggregate principal amount of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes with funds in an aggregate amount not to exceed the net cash proceeds from certain equity offerings at a redemption price equal to 103.500% of the principal amount of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes to be redeemed, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to, but excluding, the redemption date. Notwithstanding the foregoing, Rackspace Technology Global may redeem during each twelve-month period, commencing with February 9, 2021, up to 10.0% of the original aggregate principal amount of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes at a redemption price of 103.000%, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to, but excluding, the applicable redemption date.

As of December 31, 2022, $550 million aggregate principal amount of the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes remained outstanding.

5.375% Senior Notes

Rackspace Technology Global issued $550 million aggregate principal amount of the 5.375% Senior Notes on December 1, 2020. The 5.375% Senior Notes will mature on December 1, 2028 and bear interest at a fixed rate of 5.375% per year, payable semi-annually on each June 1 and December 1, commencing on June 1, 2021 through maturity. The proceeds of the 5.375% Senior Notes were used to fund the repurchase or redemption of all of our outstanding 8.625% Senior Notes and to pay related fees and expenses. The 5.375% Senior Notes are not subject to registration rights.

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Rackspace Technology Global is the issuer of the 5.375% Senior Notes, and obligations under the 5.375% Senior Notes are guaranteed on a senior unsecured basis by all of Rackspace Technology Global’s wholly-owned domestic restricted subsidiaries (as subsidiary guarantors) that guarantee the Senior Facilities. The 5.375% Senior Notes are effectively junior to the indebtedness under the Senior Facilities and the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes, to the extent of the collateral securing the Senior Facilities and the 3.50% Senior Secured Notes. The 5.375% Notes Indenture describes certain terms and conditions under which other current and future domestic subsidiaries are required to become guarantors of the 5.375% Senior Notes.

Rackspace Technology Global may redeem the 5.375% Senior Notes at its option, in whole at any time or in part from time to time, at the following redemption prices: prior to December 1, 2023, at a redemption price equal to 100.000% of the principal amount, plus the applicable premium described in the 5.375% Notes Indenture and accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date; from December 1, 2023 to November 30, 2024, at a redemption price equal to 102.688% of the principal amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date; from December 1, 2024 to November 30, 2025, at a redemption price equal to 101.344% of the principal amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date; and from December 1, 2025 and thereafter, at a redemption price equal to 100.000% of the principal amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to but excluding the redemption date. Rackspace Technology Global may also redeem prior to December 1, 2023 up to 40% of the aggregate principal amount of the 5.375% Senior Notes with funds in an aggregate amount not to exceed the net cash proceeds from certain equity offerings at a redemption price equal to 105.375% of the principal amount of the 5.375% Senior Notes to be redeemed, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to, but excluding, the redemption date.

As of December 31, 2022, $550 million aggregate principal amount of the 5.375% Senior Notes remained outstanding.

Debt covenants

Our Term Loan Facility is not subject to a financial maintenance covenant. The Revolving Credit Facility included a financial maintenance covenant that limits the borrower's net first lien leverage ratio to a maximum of 5.00 to 1.00. The net first lien leverage ratio is calculated as the ratio of (x) the total amount of the borrower’s first lien debt for borrowed money (which is currently identical to the total amount outstanding under the Senior Facilities), less the borrower’s unrestricted cash and cash equivalents, to (y) consolidated EBITDA (as defined under the First Lien Credit Agreement governing the Senior Facilities). However, this financial maintenance covenant will only be applicable and tested if the aggregate amount of outstanding borrowings under the Revolving Credit Facility and letters of credit issued thereunder (excluding $25 million of undrawn letters of credit and cash collateralized letters of credit) as of the last day of a fiscal quarter is equal to or greater than 35% of the Revolving Credit Facility commitments as of the last day of such fiscal quarter. Additional covenants in the Senior Facilities limit our subsidiaries' ability to, among other things, incur certain additional debt and liens, pay certain dividends or make other restricted payments, make certain investments, make certain asset sales and enter into certain transactions with affiliates.

The Indentures contains covenants that, among other things, limit our subsidiaries' ability to incur certain additional debt, incur certain liens securing debt, pay certain dividends or make other restricted payments, make certain investments, make certain asset sales and enter into certain transactions with affiliates. These covenants are subject to a number of exceptions, limitations, and qualifications as set forth in the Indentures. Additionally, upon the occurrence of a change of control (as defined in the Indentures), we will be required to make an offer to repurchase all of the outstanding 5.375% Senior Notes and 3.50% Senior Secured Notes at a price in cash equal to 101.000% of the aggregate principal amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest, if any, to, but not including the purchase date.

Our “consolidated EBITDA,” as defined under our debt instruments, is calculated in the same manner as our Adjusted EBITDA, presented elsewhere in this report, except that our debt instruments allow us to adjust for additional items, including certain start-up costs, and to give pro forma effect to acquisitions, including resulting synergies, and internal cost savings initiatives. In addition, under the Indentures, the calculation of consolidated EBITDA does not take into account substantially any changes in GAAP subsequent to the date of issuance, whereas under the Senior Facilities, the calculation of consolidated EBITDA takes into account the impact of certain changes in GAAP subsequent to the original closing date other than with respect to capital leases.

As of December 31, 2022, we were in compliance with all covenants under the Senior Facilities and the Indentures.

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Capital Expenditures

The following table sets forth a summary of our capital expenditures for the periods indicated:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions)","2020","","2021","","2022"],["Customer gear (1)","$","127.2","","","$","116.1","","","$","83.7"],["Data center build outs (2)","15.3","","","12.5","","","4.2"],["Office build outs (3)","2.7","","","2.0","","","0.1"],["Capitalized software and other projects (4)","79.4","","","72.3","","","53.8"],["Total capital expenditures","$","224.6","","","$","202.9","","","$","141.8"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

(1)    Includes servers, firewalls, load balancers, cabinets, backup libraries, storage arrays and drives and certain software that is essential to the functionality of customer gear, which we provide.

(2)    Includes generators, uninterruptible power supplies, power distribution units, mechanical and electrical plants, chillers, raised floor, network cabling, other infrastructure gear and other data center building improvements.

(3)    Includes building improvements, raised floor, furniture and equipment.

(4)    Includes salaries and payroll-related costs of employees and consultants who devote time to the development of certain internal-use software projects, purchased software licenses and other projects that meet the criteria for capitalization.

The reduction in capital expenditures from 2020 to 2021 and again from 2021 to 2022 is due to the continued mix shift of our revenues from high capital intensity service offerings to low capital intensity service offerings. Additionally, the shift of internal software development work to lower cost geographies has also contributed to the decrease in capital expenditures between periods.

Cash Flows

The following table sets forth a summary of certain cash flow information for the periods indicated: 

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Year Ended December 31,"],["(In millions)","2020","","2021","","2022"],["Cash provided by operating activities","$","116.7","","","$","370.8","","","$","246.7"],["Cash used in investing activities","$","(128.4)","","","$","(69.0)","","","$","(97.9)"],["Cash provided by (used in) financing activities","$","29.9","","","$","(132.2)","","","$","(187.0)"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Cash Provided by Operating Activities

Net cash provided by operating activities results primarily from cash received from customers, offset by cash payments made for employee and consultant compensation (less amounts capitalized related to internal-use software that are reflected as cash used in investing activities), data center costs, license costs, third-party infrastructure costs, marketing programs, interest, taxes, and other general corporate expenditures.

Net cash provided by operating activities for 2022 decreased $124 million, or 33%, from 2021. This decrease was primarily driven by an increase in operating expense payments of $317 million, largely for third-party infrastructure costs, partially offset by an increase in cash collections of $115 million and a decrease in employee-related payments of $56 million mainly due to a shift in headcount to our offshore service centers.

Net cash provided by operating activities for 2021 increased $254 million, or 218%, from 2020. This increase was primarily driven by a $413 million increase in cash collections, primarily reflecting higher revenue levels and an increased focus on collection efforts with multiple large customers, and to a lesser extent, receiving prepayments. In addition, there was an $88 million decrease in debt interest payments due to lower interest rates on our long-term debt following various debt repurchase and refinancing transactions during the second half of 2020 and early 2021, and a $66 million decrease in employee-related payments due to a shift in headcount to our offshore service centers. These operating cash flow increases were partially offset by a $298 million increase in operating expense payments, largely for third-party infrastructure costs.

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Cash Used in Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities primarily consists of capital expenditures to meet the demands of our customer base and our strategic initiatives. The largest outlays of cash are for purchases of customer gear, data center and office build-outs, and capitalized payroll costs related to internal-use software development.

Net cash used in investing activities for 2022 increased $29 million, or 42%, from 2021. This was mainly due to the receipt of net proceeds of $31 million in the prior year from the January 2021 sale of a parcel of undeveloped land in the United Kingdom adjacent to one of our existing data centers. During 2022, we made an $8 million cash payment in connection with the acquisition of Just Analytics and a $15 million payment for the purchase of a convertible promissory note that matures in 2027. These outflows in the current year period were offset by a $28 million reduction in cash purchases of property, equipment, and software year-over-year.

Net cash used in investing activities for 2021 decreased $59 million, or 46%, from 2020. This decrease was mainly due to net proceeds of $31 million from the January 2021 sale of a parcel of undeveloped land in the United Kingdom adjacent to one of our existing data centers. There was also a $10 million decrease in acquisitions, and an $8 million decrease in purchases of property, equipment, and software.

Cash Provided by or Used in Financing Activities

Financing activities generally include cash activity related to debt and other long-term financing arrangements (for example, finance lease obligations and financing obligations), including proceeds from and repayments of borrowings, and cash activity related to the issuance and repurchase of equity.

Net cash used in financing activities for 2022 increased $55 million, or 41% from 2021. The change was primarily driven by a $57 million reduction in proceeds from employee stock plans year-over-year. The remaining variance includes $31 million in common stock share repurchases as part of the program authorized in March 2022, a $17 million increase in finance lease principal payments, and a $4 million increase in payments on the financing component of our interest rate swap during 2022. These drivers were partially offset by a $51 million reduction in net payments related to long-term debt activity between periods, including debt issuance costs. The prior year included the February 2021 Refinancing Transaction and a $65 million repayment on the now terminated Receivables Financing Facility, while the current period only includes quarterly principal payments on our Term Loan Facility. In addition, there was a $7 million decrease in principal payments for financing obligations between periods.

Net cash used in financing activities was $132 million for 2021 compared to net cash provided by financing activities of $30 million for 2020. The change was primarily driven by net proceeds of $658 million from the IPO, including $9 million in offering fees paid, for 2020, partially offset by a $526 million decrease in net debt activity. Net payments for long-term debt activity were $599 million during 2020, which included $1,177 million of 8.625% Senior Notes repurchases, $29 million of repayments on our Prior Term Loan Facility, and $9 million in debt issuance costs paid, offset by proceeds from the issuance of our 5.375% Senior Notes, and borrowings of $65 million under the Receivables Financing Facility. Net payments for long-term debt activity were $74 million during 2021, reflecting the refinancing of our Prior Term Loan Facility, a $65 million repayment related to the termination of our Receivables Financing Facility, and $35 million in debt issuance costs paid. In addition, there was a $30 million increase in proceeds from employee stock plans, a $27 million increase in payments for finance leases and the first three payments for the financing component of our interest rate swaps totaling $13 million during 2021, offset by proceeds from financing obligations of $21 million during 2020.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

During the periods presented, we did not have any relationships with unconsolidated entities or financial partnerships, such as entities often referred to as structured finance or special purpose entities. These entities are typically established for the purpose of facilitating off-balance sheet arrangements or other contractually narrow or limited purposes.

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We have entered into various indemnification arrangements with third parties, including vendors, customers, landlords, our officers and directors, stockholders of acquired companies and third parties to whom and from whom we license technology. Generally, these indemnification agreements require us to reimburse losses suffered by third parties due to various events, such as lawsuits arising from patent or copyright infringement or our negligence. Certain of these agreements require us to indemnify the other party against certain claims relating to property damage, personal injury or the acts or omissions by us, our employees, agents or representatives. These indemnification obligations are considered off-balance sheet arrangements. To date, we have not incurred material costs as a result of such obligations and have not accrued any material liabilities related to such indemnification obligations in our consolidated financial statements. See Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 9, "Commitments and Contingencies" for more information related to these indemnification arrangements.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with GAAP, which requires us to make judgments and estimates that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenue, costs and expenses and related disclosures. We consider accounting estimates that require significant management judgment to be critical accounting estimates. We review our estimates and judgments on an ongoing basis, including those related to business combinations, revenue recognition, allowance for credit losses, property, equipment and software and definite-lived intangible assets, goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets, contingencies, share-based compensation and income taxes. We base our estimates on historical experience and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances to determine the carrying values of assets and liabilities. In many instances, we could have reasonably used different accounting estimates, and in other instances, changes in the accounting estimates are reasonably likely to occur from period-to-period. Accordingly, actual results could differ significantly from the estimates made by our management. To the extent that there are material differences between these estimates and actual results, our future financial statement presentation, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows will be affected.

Business Combinations

Mergers and acquisitions are accounted for using the acquisition method, in accordance with accounting guidance for business combinations. Under the acquisition method, we allocate the fair value of purchase consideration to the tangible and intangible assets acquired (“identifiable assets”) and liabilities assumed based on their estimated fair values. The excess of the fair value of purchase consideration over the fair values of these identifiable assets and liabilities is recorded as goodwill. When determining the fair values of identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed, including contingent consideration when applicable, management makes significant estimates and assumptions.

Critical estimates in valuing certain intangible assets include but are not limited to discount rates and future expected cash flows from customer relationships and developed technology. The fair value of equity and contingent consideration includes estimates and judgments related to the discount rates and future discounted cash flows based on management’s internal forecasts, timing of achievement of milestones and probability-weighted scenarios. Management’s estimates of fair value are based upon assumptions believed to be reasonable, but which are inherently uncertain and unpredictable and, as a result, may differ from estimates.

Other estimates associated with the accounting for acquisitions may change as additional information becomes available regarding the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed.

Revenue Recognition

We provide cloud computing to customers, which is broadly defined as the delivery of computing, storage and applications over the Internet. Cloud computing is a service transaction under which the services we provide vary on a daily basis. The totality of services provided represent a single integrated solution tailored to the customer’s specific needs. As such, our performance obligations to our customers consist of a single integrated solution delivered as a series of distinct daily services. We recognize revenue on a daily basis as services are provided in an amount that reflects the consideration to which we expect to be entitled in exchange for the services.

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Our usage-based arrangements generally include variable consideration components consisting of monthly utility fees with a defined price and undefined quantity. Additionally, our contracts contain service level guarantees that provide discounts when we fail to meet specific obligations and certain products may include volume discounts based on usage. As these variable consideration components consist of a single distinct daily service provided on a single performance obligation, we account for this consideration as services are provided and earned.

A substantial amount of revenue relates to fees associated with our private cloud services within the Multicloud Services offerings that generally have a fixed term, typically from 12 to 36 months, with a monthly recurring fee based on the computing resources utilized and provided to the customer, the complexity of the underlying infrastructure and the level of support we provide. Contracts for our service offerings falling within our Apps & Cross Platform and OpenStack Public Cloud segments and public cloud service offerings within our Multicloud Services segment typically operate on a consumption model and can be canceled at any time without penalty.

We also provide customers with professional services for the design and implementation of application, security and data services. Professional service contracts are either fixed-fee or time-and-materials based. We typically consider our professional services to be a separate performance obligation from other integrated solutions being provided to the same customer. Our performance obligations under these arrangements are typically to provide the services on a daily basis over a period of time and we recognize revenue as the services are performed.

We offer customers the flexibility to select the best combination of resources in order to meet the requirements of their unique applications and provide the technology to seamlessly operate and manage multiple cloud computing environments. Judgment is required in assessing whether a service is distinct, including determination of whether the customer could benefit from the service on its own or in conjunction with other readily available resources and whether certain services are highly integrated into a bundle of services that represent the combined output specified by the customer. Arrangements can contain multiple performance obligations that are distinct, which are accounted for separately. Each performance obligation is recognized as services are provided based on their SSP. Judgment is required to determine the SSP for each of our distinct performance obligations. We utilize a range of prices when developing our estimates of SSP. We determine the range of prices for estimating SSP for all our performance obligations using observable inputs, such as standalone sales and historical contract pricing. Our estimates of SSP are updated quarterly.

In addition, our customer agreements provide that we will achieve certain service levels related primarily to network uptime, critical infrastructure availability and hardware replacement. We may be obligated to provide service credits for a portion of the service fees paid by our customers to the extent that such service levels are not achieved or are otherwise disputed. Credit memos are recognized in the period of service to which they relate.

Revenue recognition for revenue generated from arrangements in which we resell third-party infrastructure bundled with our managed services, requires judgment to determine whether revenue can be recorded at the gross sales price or net of third-party fees. Typically, revenue is recognized on a gross basis when it is determined that we are the principal in the relationship. We are considered the principal in the relationship when we are primarily responsible for fulfilling the contract and obtain control of the third-party infrastructure before transferring it as an integral part of our performance obligation to provide services to the customer. Revenue is recognized net of third-party fees when we determine that our obligation is only to facilitate the customers’ purchase of third-party infrastructure.

Valuation of Accounts Receivable and Allowance for Credit Losses

We record an allowance for credit losses on trade accounts receivable for estimated losses resulting from uncollectible receivables. When evaluating the adequacy of the allowance, we consider historical bad debt write-offs and all known facts and circumstances such as current economic conditions and trends, customer creditworthiness and specifically identified customer risks. If actual collections of customer receivables differ from our estimates, additional allowances may be required which could have an impact on our results of operations.

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Property, Equipment and Software and Definite-Lived Intangible Assets

In providing services to our customers, we utilize significant amounts of property, equipment and software, which we depreciate on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful lives. Definite-lived intangible assets are primarily comprised of customer relationships and are stated at their acquisition-date fair value less accumulated amortization. These intangible assets are amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful lives. Property and equipment under operating and finance leases are included within “Operating right-of-use assets” and “Property, equipment and software, net,” respectively, in our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Operating right-of-use assets are amortized on a straight-line basis over the lease term whereas finance lease assets are amortized on a straight-line basis over the shorter of the estimated useful lives of the assets or the lease term. We routinely review the estimated useful lives of our property, equipment and software and definite-lived intangible assets (“long-lived assets”). A change in the useful life of a long-lived asset is treated as a change in accounting estimate in the period of change and future periods.

Long-lived assets, including operating right-of-use assets and finance lease assets, are reviewed for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable. Recoverability of assets is measured at the asset group level and if the carrying amount of the asset group exceeds its estimated undiscounted future cash flows, an impairment charge is recognized in the amount by which the carrying amount of the asset group exceeds its fair value.

As of September 1, 2022, due to the factors discussed below, we performed an interim impairment review of the recoverability of our long-lived assets by asset group. Based on the results of the recoverability test, we determined that, as of September 1, 2022, the carrying amount of the OpenStack Public Cloud asset group’s long-lived assets exceeded the sum of the undiscounted cash flows. Fair values of the OpenStack Public Cloud long-lived assets were determined using a combination of the income approach and the cost approach. The income approach utilized assumptions including management’s best estimates of the expected future cash flows, risk-adjusted discount rate, and the estimated useful life of the asset group. The cost approach utilized assumptions for the current replacement costs of similar assets adjusted for estimated depreciation and deterioration of the existing equipment and economic obsolescence. Estimates of floor values for the property, equipment and software, net, were considered relative to potential economic support for the assets such that the concluded value did not fall below the estimated floor value of these assets. We concluded that the carrying value of the OpenStack Public Cloud long-lived assets, including customer relationship intangibles and property, equipment and software, net, were impaired and recorded non-cash impairment charges of $38 million during the third quarter of 2022, which is included in "Impairment of assets" in our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss.

The results of our impairment reviews of the recoverability of our long-lived assets as of October 1, 2022 and December 31, 2022 did not indicate any impairments.

We capitalize the salaries and related compensation costs of employees and consultants who devote time to the development of certain internal-use software projects. Judgment is required in determining whether an enhancement to previously developed software is significant and creates additional functionality to the software, thus resulting in capitalization. All other software development costs are expensed as incurred. Capitalized software development costs are amortized over the expected useful life of the software, which is generally three years; however, we evaluate the nature and utility of each project which can result in a useful life ranging between one and five years on certain projects.

Goodwill and Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets

Goodwill represents the excess of the purchase price over the fair value of identifiable net assets of businesses acquired. Our indefinite-lived intangible assets consists of our Rackspace trade name, which was recorded at fair value on our balance sheet at the date of the Rackspace Acquisition.

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Application of the goodwill and other indefinite-lived intangible asset impairment test requires judgment, including the identification of reporting units, assignment of assets and liabilities to reporting units, assignment of goodwill to reporting units and determination of the fair value of each reporting unit. We test goodwill and our indefinite-lived intangible asset, the Rackspace trade name, for impairment on an annual basis as of October 1st or more frequently if events or circumstances indicate a potential impairment. These events or circumstances could include a significant change in the business climate, regulatory environment, established business plans, operating performance indicators or competition. Potential impairment indicators may also include, but are not limited to, (i) the results of our most recent annual or interim impairment testing, (ii) downward revisions to internal forecasts, and the magnitude thereof, if any, (iii) declines in our market capitalization below our book value, and the magnitude and duration of those declines, if any, and (iv) other macroeconomic factors, such as increases in interest rates that may affect the weighted average cost of capital, volatility in the equity and debt markets, or fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates that may negatively impact our reported results of operations.

Goodwill is tested for impairment at the reporting unit level. A reporting unit is an operating segment or one level below an operating segment (referred to as a component). We allocate goodwill to reporting units based on the reporting unit expected to benefit from the business combination. Assets and liabilities are assigned to each of our reporting units if they are employed by a reporting unit and are considered in the determination of the reporting unit fair value. Certain assets and liabilities are shared by multiple reporting units, and thus, are allocated to each reporting unit based on the relative size of a reporting unit, primarily based on revenue. We have two reporting units with goodwill: Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform. Goodwill allocated to our third reporting unit, OpenStack Public Cloud, was fully impaired during the fourth quarter of 2021.

We estimate the fair values of our reporting units and the Rackspace trade name using the discounted cash flow method and relief-from-royalty method, respectively. These calculations require the use of significant estimates and assumptions, such as: (i) the royalty rate; (ii) the estimation of future revenue and projected margins, which are dependent on internal cash flow forecasts; (iii) estimation of the terminal growth rates and capital spending; and (iv) determination of discount rates. The discount rates used are based on our weighted average cost of capital and are adjusted for risks and uncertainties inherent in our business and in our estimation of future cash flows. As part of the goodwill impairment test, we also consider our market capitalization in assessing the reasonableness of the combined fair values estimated for our reporting units, including OpenStack Public Cloud. The estimates and assumptions used to calculate the fair value of our reporting units and the Rackspace trade name from year to year are based on operating results, market conditions, and other factors. Changes in these estimates and assumptions could produce materially different results.

As of September 1, 2022, after considering all available evidence in our evaluation of goodwill impairment indicators, we determined it appropriate to perform an interim quantitative assessment of our reporting unit as of September 1, 2022.

For the interim quantitative goodwill impairment analysis performed as of September 1, 2022, we utilized the income approach to determine the fair value of our reporting units. The income approach utilizes a discounted cash flow method which is based on the present value of projected cash flows. The discounted cash flow models reflect our assumptions regarding revenue growth rates, projected gross profit margins, risk-adjusted discount rates, terminal period growth rate, economic and market trends and other expectations about the anticipated operating results of our reporting units. The terminal period growth rate is selected based on economic conditions and consideration of growth rates used in the forecast period and historical performance of the reporting unit. We utilized a range of our weighted-average cost of capital of 10.0% to 12.0% as our discount rate, which was risk-adjusted for each reporting unit. After determining the fair value of our reporting units, we reconciled the combined fair value of the reporting units to the company's market capitalization as of September 1, 2022. As a result of our interim goodwill impairment test performed as of September 1, 2022, we determined that the carrying amount of our Multicloud Services reporting unit exceeded its fair value and recorded a goodwill impairment charge of $405 million during the third quarter of 2022, which is included in "Impairment of goodwill" in our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss. The impairment was driven by deteriorating forecasted margins and cash flows within this reporting unit primarily due to slower than anticipated product mix shifts. The Apps & Cross Platform reporting unit was determined to have a fair value that exceeded its carrying value by approximately 15% and therefore no impairment was recognized.

We performed sensitivity analyses on the key inputs and assumptions used in determining the estimated fair value of our reporting unit by utilizing changes in assumptions that reflect reasonably likely future changes in the discount rate used in the weighted-average cost of capital calculation and the terminal growth rate. Assuming all other assumptions and inputs used in the discounted cash flow analysis are held constant, a 50 basis point increase in the discount rate assumption would result in decreases in fair value of our Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform reporting units of approximately $235 million and $33 million, respectively.

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As of September 1, 2022, due to the factors discussed above and prior to testing our goodwill for impairment, we performed a quantitative assessment of our indefinite-lived intangible asset utilizing a relief from royalty method. Significant estimates and assumptions included in the relief from royalty method are expectations of revenue growth rates, and selection of royalty rate and discount rate. We utilized a royalty rate of 0.5% and a discount rate of 10.7%. We determined the estimated fair value of the Rackspace trade name was less than its carrying value. As a result, we recorded a $21 million non-cash impairment charge during the third quarter of 2022, which is included in "Impairment of assets" in our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss.

We performed our annual quantitative goodwill impairment test as of October 1, 2022. For the quantitative goodwill impairment analysis performed as of October 1, 2022, we utilized the income approach to determine the fair value of our reporting units, as discussed above. We utilized a range of our weighted-average cost of capital of 10.0% to 12.0% as our discount rate, which was risk-adjusted for each reporting unit. After determining the fair value of our reporting units, we reconciled the combined fair value of the reporting units to the company's market capitalization as of October 1, 2022. As a result of our goodwill impairment test performed as of October 1, 2022, we determined that the fair value exceeded the carrying amounts for each of our reporting units. The fair value exceeded the carrying value for the Multicloud Services reporting unit by 1% and the Apps & Cross Platform reporting unit by 15%. Therefore no impairment was recognized.

We performed sensitivity analyses on the key inputs and assumptions used in determining the estimated fair value of our reporting unit by utilizing changes in assumptions that reflect reasonably likely future changes in the discount rate used in the weighted-average cost of capital calculation and the terminal growth rate. Assuming all other assumptions and inputs used in the discounted cash flow analysis are held constant, a 50 basis point increase in the discount rate assumption would result in decreases in fair value of our Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform reporting units of approximately $236 million and $38 million, respectively.

As of October 1, 2022, we performed a quantitative assessment of our indefinite-lived intangible asset utilizing a relief from royalty method, as discussed above. We utilized a royalty rate of 0.5% and a discount rate of 10.7%. We determined the estimated fair value of the Rackspace trade name was greater than its carrying value, and therefore no impairment was recognized.

During the fourth quarter of 2022, subsequent to our annual goodwill impairment analysis, we experienced decline in our market capitalization following a ransomware incident in early December which caused service disruptions on our Hosted Exchange email business which is included in our Apps & Cross Platform reporting unit. After considering all available evidence in our evaluation of goodwill impairment indicators, including our lowered projected operating results within this reporting unit, we determined it appropriate to perform an interim quantitative assessment of our reporting units as of December 31, 2022.

For the quantitative goodwill impairment analysis performed as of December 31, 2022, we utilized the income approach to determine the fair value of our reporting units, as discussed above. We utilized a range of our weighted-average cost of capital of 10.5% to 12.0% as our discount rate, which was risk-adjusted for each reporting unit. After determining the fair value of our reporting units, we reconciled the combined fair value of the reporting units to the company's market capitalization as of December 31, 2022. As a result of our goodwill impairment test performed as of December 31, 2022, we determined that the carrying amount of our Apps & Cross Platform reporting unit exceeded its fair value and recorded a goodwill impairment charge of $129 million, which is included in "Impairment of goodwill" in our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss. The impairment was driven by a decrease in forecasted revenues, margins, and cash flows within the reporting unit primarily due to the Hosted Exchange incident and other macroeconomic factors. The Multicloud Services reporting unit was determined to have a fair value that exceeded its carrying value by approximately 1% and therefore no impairment was recognized.

We performed sensitivity analyses on the key inputs and assumptions used in determining the estimated fair value of our reporting unit by utilizing changes in assumptions that reflect reasonably likely future changes in the discount rate used in the weighted-average cost of capital calculation and the terminal growth rate. Assuming all other assumptions and inputs used in the discounted cash flow analysis are held constant, a 50 basis point increase in the discount rate assumption would result in decreases in fair value of our Multicloud Services and Apps & Cross Platform reporting units of approximately $218 million and $22 million, respectively.

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As of December 31, 2022, due to the factors discussed above and prior to testing our goodwill for impairment, we performed a quantitative assessment of our indefinite-lived intangible asset utilizing a relief from royalty method, as discussed above. We utilized a royalty rate of 0.5% and a discount rate of 11.0%. We determined the estimated fair value of the Rackspace trade name was less than its carrying value. As a result, we recorded a $12 million non-cash impairment charge during the fourth quarter of 2022, which is included in "Impairment of assets" in our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss.

The fair value determination of our reporting units and our indefinite-lived intangible asset is judgmental in nature and requires the use of estimates and assumptions that are sensitive to changes. Assumptions include estimation of the royalty rate, estimation of future revenue and projected margins, which are dependent on internal cash flow forecasts, estimation of the terminal growth rates and capital spending, and determination of discount rates. As a result, there can be no assurance that the estimates and assumptions made for purposes of the quantitative goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible impairment tests will prove to be an accurate prediction of future results. Examples of events or circumstances that could reasonably be expected to negatively affect the underlying key assumptions and ultimately impact the estimated fair value of our reporting units may include such items as: (i) volatility in the equity and debt markets or other macroeconomic factors, (ii) an increase in the weighted-average cost of capital due to further increases in interest rates, (iii) decrease in future cash flows due to lower than expected sales, or (iv) fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates that may negatively impact our reported results of operations. Accordingly, if our current cash flow assumptions are not realized, we experience further sustained declines in our stock price or market capitalization, or increases in costs of capital, it is possible that an additional impairment charge may be recorded in the future, which could be material.

As a result of our annual goodwill impairment test performed during the fourth quarter of 2021, we determined that the carrying amount of our OpenStack Public Cloud reporting unit exceeded its fair value and fully impaired its goodwill by recording a goodwill impairment charge of $52 million for the year ended December 31, 2021. The impairment was driven by deteriorating forecasted margins and cash flows within the reporting unit primarily due to operating costs declining at a slower rate than previously anticipated even after factoring in the long term impacts of the July 2021 Restructuring Plan.

As of December 31, 2022, the carrying amount of goodwill was $2,155.1 million.

Contingencies

We accrue for contingent obligations when the obligation is probable and the amount is reasonably estimable. As facts concerning contingencies become known, we reassess our position and make appropriate adjustments to the recorded accrual. Estimates that are particularly sensitive to future changes include those related to tax, legal and other regulatory matters, changes in the interpretation and enforcement of international laws, and the impact of local economic conditions and practices, which are all subject to change as events evolve and as additional information becomes available during the administrative and litigation process. Changes in our estimates and assumptions could have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

Share-Based Compensation

We account for share-based awards under the recognition and measurement provisions of ASC No. 718, Compensation—Stock Compensation. Share-based compensation cost is measured at the grant date based on the fair value of the underlying common stock and is recognized as expense over the requisite service period. The fair value of stock options with vesting conditions dependent upon market performance is determined using a Monte Carlo simulation. Determining the grant date fair value of share-based awards with performance vesting conditions and the probability of such awards vesting requires judgment.

Prior to the completion of the IPO on August 7, 2020, there had been no public market for our common stock since the Rackspace Acquisition in 2016. The estimated fair value of our common stock was determined by our board of directors as of the grant date of each option grant, with input from management, including consideration of our most recent third-party valuations of our common stock, which were completed periodically throughout the fiscal year.

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We used the Income Approach to estimate the value of our equity. Within the Income Approach, we rely upon the Discounted Cash Flow (“DCF”) method, which focused on our estimated expected cash flow available for distribution to the equityholders. The DCF calculation was prepared based on detailed revenue and expense projections prepared by management as part of its annual budgeting process and reflected the financial and operational facts and circumstances specific to our company. Significant assumptions impacting the DCF calculation also included expected future capital expenditures, our long-term growth rate, and the applicable discount rate. For purposes of capturing the dilution from outstanding options, the valuation utilized the Option-Pricing Method. The Option-Pricing Method depended on key assumptions regarding the volatility and time to a liquidity event but did not require explicit estimates of the possible future outcomes. The input and assumptions used in this calculation were total equity value, time to liquidity, expected volatility and dividends, which were all determined by management. A discount for lack of marketability was not applied as its impact was already reflected in the equity value through the discount rate, given that there were no differential rights attributable to different shareholders (as we have only one class of shares). These estimates were complex, involved a number of variables, uncertainties and assumptions and the application of management’s judgment, as they were inherently subjective.

Income Taxes

We are subject to income taxes in the U.S. and numerous foreign jurisdictions. Significant judgments and estimates are required in evaluating our tax positions and determining our provision for income taxes. Although we believe we have adequately reserved for our uncertain tax positions, no assurance can be given that the final tax outcome of these matters will not be different. To the extent that the final tax outcome of these matters is different than the amounts recorded, such differences will impact the provision for income taxes in the period in which such determination is made.

Our effective tax rates may differ from the statutory rate for various reasons, including differences due to the tax impact of foreign operations, R&D tax credits, state taxes, contingency reserves for uncertain tax positions, certain benefits realized related to share-based compensation, executive compensation that is nondeductible under IRC Section 162(m), changes in the valuation of our deferred tax assets or liabilities, goodwill impairments, or from changes in tax laws, regulations, accounting principles or interpretations thereof. In addition, we are periodically subject to examination of our income tax returns in the U.S., U.K., India, and other countries. We regularly assess the likelihood of adverse outcomes resulting from these examinations to determine the adequacy of our provision for income taxes.

Deferred income taxes arise from temporary differences between the tax basis of assets and liabilities and their reported amounts in the consolidated financial statements, which will result in taxable or deductible amounts in the future. In evaluating our ability to recover our deferred tax assets within the jurisdiction from which they arise, we consider all available positive and negative evidence, including scheduled reversals of deferred tax liabilities, projected future taxable income, tax-planning strategies and results of recent operations. The assumptions about future taxable income require significant judgment and are consistent with the plans and estimates we are using to manage the underlying businesses.

For a description of accounting pronouncements recently adopted and issued, see Item 8 of Part II, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data - Note 1, "Company Overview, Basis of Presentation, and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies."

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