Graham Holdings Co (GHC) FY 2022 MD&A

OVERVIEW

Graham Holdings Company (the Company) is a diversified holding company whose operations include educational services, television broadcasting, manufacturing, healthcare and automotive dealerships. The Company has seven reportable segments and a group of companies that make up Other Businesses. The Company’s business units are diverse and subject to different trends and risks.

Education is the largest operating division of the Company, making up 36% of the Company’s consolidated revenues in 2022. Through its subsidiary Kaplan, Inc., the Company provides extensive worldwide education services for individuals, schools and businesses. The Company has devoted significant resources and attention to this division for many years, given its geographic and product diversity, the investment opportunities and growth prospects during this time, and challenges related to government regulation. Kaplan is organized into the following three operating segments: Kaplan International, Kaplan Higher Education (KHE) and Supplemental Education.

Kaplan International reported revenue growth for 2022 due largely to increases at Languages and Pathways, partially offset by a decline at Singapore. Kaplan International operating results improved in 2022 due to a reduction in losses at Languages and improved results at Pathways and UK Professional. KHE revenue declined in 2022, due to lower costs incurred for reimbursement under the Purdue University Global (Purdue Global) agreement. KHE operating results were flat in 2022 as growth from Purdue Global fees was offset by increased investment costs. Supplemental Education revenues and operating results declined in 2022 due largely to a reduction in retail comprehensive test preparation demand; demand for professional programs remained stable.

The Company’s second largest business is television broadcasting. The Company’s television broadcasting division reported higher revenues and operating income in 2022, due largely to significant political advertising revenue from the 2022 election cycle. Retransmission revenues, net of network fee expense, trended down slightly in 2022 with this trend expected to continue in the future due largely to adverse subscriber trends from cord cutting. In recent years, the television broadcasting division has consistently generated significantly higher operating income amounts and operating income margins than the education division and the Company’s other reporting segments.

The Company’s manufacturing division has provided meaningful operating cash flow over the last few years, despite reduced demand due to the COVID-19 pandemic at certain businesses. Graham Healthcare Group (GHG) has grown substantially over the last few years and provided meaningful operating cash flow from acquisitions and internal growth. GHG has expanded from its home health and hospice operations into new lines of business, largely from significant growth at CSI Pharmacy Holding Company, which provides nursing care and prescription services for patients receiving in-home infusion treatments. Automotive revenues, operating income and operating cash flow grew substantially in 2022 due to three large dealership acquisitions, internal growth and a favorable operating environment.

The Company’s other businesses include several investment stage businesses as well as investments into new lines of business over the last few years. In total, there are nine operating business units that make up this group in three categories: retail, media and specialty. The largest of these businesses from a revenue standpoint is Leaf, a consumer internet company acquired in 2021, followed by Clyde’s Restaurant Group and Framebridge, a custom framing service company. In 2022, Clyde’s reported positive operating income, while the other businesses each reported operating losses, which were significant at Leaf and Framebridge.

The Company generates a significant amount of cash from its businesses that is used to support its operations, pay down debt and fund capital expenditures, share repurchases, dividends, acquisitions and other investments.

RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Net income attributable to common shares was $67.1 million ($13.79 per share) for the year ended December 31, 2022, compared to $352.1 million ($70.45 per share) for the year ended December 31, 2021.

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Items included in the Company’s net income for 2022 are listed below:

•a $6.1 million net credit related to fair value changes in contingent consideration from prior acquisitions (after-tax impact of $6.1 million or $1.25 per share);

•$129.0 million in goodwill and intangible asset impairment charges (after-tax impact of $117.0 million, or $24.06 per share) at Leaf recorded in the fourth quarter;

•$3.6 million in expenses related to a non-operating Separation Incentive Program (SIP) at the education division (after-tax impact of $2.7 million, or $0.56 per share) recorded in the fourth quarter;

•$139.6 million in net losses on marketable equity securities (after-tax impact of $102.8 million, or $21.14 per share);

•$11.8 million in net losses of affiliates whose operations are not managed by the Company (after-tax impact of $8.7 million, or $1.79 per share);

•a fourth quarter gain of $18.4 million on the sale of CyberVista (after-tax impact of $13.5 million, or $2.78 per share);

•Non-operating gains, net, of $9.5 million from write-ups, sales and impairments of cost and equity method investments (after-tax impact of $7.1 million, or $1.45 per share); and

•$16.5 million in interest expense to adjust the fair value of the mandatorily redeemable noncontrolling interest (after-tax impact of $15.4 million, or $3.17 per share).

Items included in the Company’s net income for 2021 are listed below:

•a $3.9 million net credit related to fair value changes in contingent consideration from prior acquisitions ($0.78 per share);

•$31.6 million in goodwill and other long-lived asset impairment charges (after-tax impact of $26.0 million, or $5.19 per share);

•$1.1 million in expenses related to a non-operating SIP at manufacturing (after-tax impact of $0.8 million, or $0.16 per share);

•$243.1 million in net gains on marketable equity securities (after-tax impact of $179.7 million, or $35.96 per share);

•$12.6 million in net earnings of affiliates whose operations are not managed by the Company (after-tax impact of $9.3 million, or $1.86 per share);

•Non-operating gains, net, of $13.6 million from write-ups, sales and impairments of cost and equity method investments (after-tax impact of $10.1 million, or $2.02 per share);

•$4.1 million in interest expense to adjust the fair value of the mandatorily redeemable noncontrolling interest (after-tax impact of $4.0 million, or $0.80 per share); and

•a $17.2 million deferred tax benefit arising from a change in the estimated deferred state income tax rate related to the Company’s pension and other postretirement plans ($3.45 per share).

Revenue for 2022 was $3,924.5 million, up 23% from $3,186.0 million in 2021. Revenues increased at all the Company’s divisions. Operating costs and expenses for the year increased to $3,840.6 million in 2022, from $3,108.6 million in 2021. Expenses in 2022 increased at education, healthcare, automotive and other businesses, partially offset by decreases at television broadcasting and manufacturing. The Company reported operating income for 2022 of $83.9 million, compared to $77.4 million in 2021. Operating results increased at education, television broadcasting, manufacturing and automotive, partially offset by declines at healthcare and other businesses.

The COVID-19 pandemic and measures taken to prevent its spread significantly impacted the Company’s results for 2021 and, to a lesser extent, 2022, largely from reduced demand for the Company’s products and services.

Division Results

Education

Education division revenue in 2022 totaled $1,427.9 million, up 5% from $1,361.2 million in 2021. Kaplan reported operating income of $82.9 million for 2022, an increase from $50.6 million in 2021.

The COVID-19 pandemic adversely impacted Kaplan’s operating results during 2021 and, to a lesser extent, during 2022. Kaplan serves a large number of students who travel to other countries to study a second language, prepare for licensure, or pursue a higher education degree. Government-imposed travel restrictions and school closures

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arising from COVID-19 had a negative impact on the ability of certain international students to travel and attend Kaplan’s programs, particularly Kaplan International’s Language programs (Languages) in 2021.

A summary of Kaplan’s operating results is as follows:

Kaplan International includes postsecondary education, professional training and language training businesses largely outside the United States. Kaplan International revenue increased 12% in 2022 (22% on a constant currency basis). The increase is due largely to growth at Languages and Pathways, partially offset by a decline at Singapore. Kaplan International reported operating income of $72.1 million in 2022, compared to $33.5 million in 2021. The improved results are due largely to a reduction in losses at Languages, and improved results at Pathways and UK Professional, partially offset by a decline at Singapore. Overall, Kaplan International’s operating results in 2021 were negatively impacted by $43 million in losses incurred at Languages from significant COVID-19 disruptions.

Higher Education includes the results of Kaplan as a service provider to higher education institutions. Higher Education revenue declined 4% in 2022 due largely to lower costs incurred for reimbursement under the Purdue Global agreement. In 2022 and 2021, Kaplan recorded a portion of the fee with Purdue Global based on an assessment of its collectability under the TOSA. Enrollments at Purdue Global for 2022 finished 1% lower compared with the end of 2021. The Company will continue to assess the collectability of the fee with Purdue Global on a quarterly basis to make a determination as to whether to record all or part of the fee in the future and whether to make adjustments to fee amounts recognized in earlier periods. During 2022 and 2021, Kaplan recorded $38.9 million and $34.8 million, respectively, in fees from Purdue Global in its Higher Education operating results. Higher Education results were flat in 2022 due to an increase in the Purdue Global fee recorded, partially offset by increased investment costs incurred related to other university agreements and other higher education development costs.

Supplemental Education includes Kaplan’s standardized test preparation programs and domestic professional and other continuing education businesses. In November 2021, Supplemental Education acquired two small businesses. Supplemental Education revenue declined 2% in 2022 due largely to declines in retail comprehensive test preparation demand, offset in part by revenue from acquisitions completed in November 2021. Overall, demand for graduate and pre-college test preparation programs has declined due to the strength of U.S. employment markets and the decline in test takers, while demand for professional programs remained stable. Operating results declined in 2022 due to lower revenues and increased advertising and product development costs.

In the fourth quarter of 2022, Kaplan implemented a SIP to reduce the number of employees at Supplemental Education and Higher Education, which was funded by the assets of the Company’s pension plan. In connection with the SIP, the Company recorded $3.6 million in non-operating pension expense in the fourth quarter of 2022. Kaplan estimates the SIP will result in annual expense reductions of approximately $10 million.

Kaplan corporate and other represents unallocated expenses of Kaplan, Inc.’s corporate office, other minor businesses and certain shared activities. Overall, Kaplan corporate and other expenses declined in 2022 due to lower incentive compensation costs compared to 2021.

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Television Broadcasting

A summary of television broadcasting’s operating results is as follows:

Graham Media Group, Inc. owns seven television stations located in Houston, TX; Detroit, MI; Orlando, FL; San Antonio, TX; Jacksonville, FL; and Roanoke, VA, as well as SocialNewsDesk, a provider of social media management tools designed to connect newsrooms with their users. Revenue at the television broadcasting division increased 8% to $535.7 million in 2022, from $494.2 million in 2021. The revenue increase is due to a $57.7 million increase in political revenue, increases from winter Olympics and Super Bowl advertising revenue at the Company’s NBC affiliates in the first quarter of 2022, and a $0.4 million increase in retransmission revenues, partially offset by declines in other categories from fewer available advertising spots and a reduction in digital revenues. Operating income for 2022 increased 35% to $201.9 million, from $149.4 million in 2021, due to increased revenues and a reduction in incentive compensation costs. While per subscriber rates from cable, satellite and OTT providers have grown, overall subscribers are down due to cord cutting across all platforms, resulting in retransmission revenue net of network fees in 2022 to be down slightly compared with 2021, and this trend is expected to continue in the future. Operating margin at the television broadcasting division was 38% in 2022 and 30% in 2021.

In May 2022, the Company’s television station in Orlando (WKMG) entered into a new network affiliation agreement with CBS effective July 1, 2022 through June 30, 2026. In December 2022, the Company’s television stations in Houston (KPRC), Detroit (WDIV) and Roanoke (WSLS) entered into a new three-year NBC Affiliation Agreement effective January 1, 2023 through December 31, 2025.

Graham Media Group’s media hubs remain competitive and ideally positioned in their respective markets. Regarding linear, KSAT in San Antonio and WJXT in Jacksonville ended the year with market-leading 6 a.m., 6 p.m. and late newscasts among the all-important 25 to 54 audience segment. KPRC in Houston had success at 6 p.m. and 10 p.m. with a dominant performance and finished a very close second in the mornings. WDIV in Detroit had a solid win at 6 p.m. and remained competitive at 6 a.m. and 11 p.m., while WKMG in Orlando wrapped up the year with a respectable late news performance finishing #2. WSLS ranked third in key newscasts, while syndication remained a strength for WCWJ in daytime and early fringe. On the digital front, GMG delivered year over year growth in overall digital users, a significant increase in live stream minutes watched, steady subscriber growth in their Insider membership program and finished another year with leading local media sites in each of their respective markets.

Manufacturing

A summary of manufacturing’s operating results is as follows:

Manufacturing includes four businesses: Hoover, a supplier of pressure impregnated kiln-dried lumber and plywood products for fire retardant and preservative applications; Dekko, a manufacturer of electrical workspace solutions, architectural lighting and electrical components and assemblies; Joyce/Dayton, a manufacturer of screw jacks and other linear motion systems; and Forney, a global supplier of products and systems that control and monitor combustion processes in electric utility and industrial applications.

Manufacturing revenues increased 6% in 2022 due to increased revenues at all of the manufacturing businesses. The revenue growth in 2022 at Hoover is due to higher wood prices and increased product demand. Wood prices were highly volatile in 2022 and 2021. Overall, Hoover results include gains on inventory sales in 2022 and 2021; however, wood gains on inventory sales were modestly higher in 2021. Manufacturing operating results increased significantly in 2022 due to $28.0 million in goodwill and other long-lived asset impairment charges in 2021 ($26.7 million of this charge was recorded at Dekko in the third quarter of 2021), and improved results at all of the manufacturing businesses.

In the second quarter of 2021, Dekko announced a plan to relocate its manufacturing operations in Shelton, CT to other Dekko manufacturing facilities, which was substantially completed by the end of 2021. In connection with this activity, Dekko implemented a SIP for the affected employees, resulting in $1.1 million in non-operating SIP expense recorded in the second quarter of 2021, which was funded by the assets of the Company’s pension plan.

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Healthcare

A summary of healthcare’s operating results is as follows:

The Graham Healthcare Group (GHG) provides home health and hospice services in seven states. GHG also provides other healthcare services, including nursing care and prescription services for patients receiving in-home infusion treatments through its 76.5% interest in CSI Pharmacy Holding Company, LLC (CSI). In December 2021, GHG acquired two small businesses, one of which expanded GHG’s home health operations into Florida. In May 2022, GHG acquired two small businesses, one of which expanded GHG’s home health operations into Kansas and Missouri. In July 2022, GHG acquired a 100% interest in a multi-state provider of Applied Behavior Analysis clinics and in August 2022, GHG acquired two small businesses, which expanded GHG’s hospice services into Missouri and Ohio. Healthcare revenues increased 46% in 2022 largely due to significant growth at CSI and from businesses acquired in the fourth quarter of 2021 and in 2022, along with growth in home health and hospice services.

In 2022, GHG implemented a new pension credit retention program in order to improve employee retention and utilize the Company’s surplus pension assets. The GHG pilot program offers a pension credit up to $50,000 per employee, cliff vested after three years of continuous employment for certain existing employees and new employees hired from January 1, 2022 through December 31, 2024. GHG recorded pension expense of $10.5 million related to this program in 2022.

The decline in GHG operating results in 2022 is due to $10.5 million in 2022 pension expense related to the new GHG pension credit retention program, net losses from newly acquired businesses, and increased marketing, human resources, recruiting and business development costs and overall increased compensation and transportation costs in nursing and clinical staffing. Excluding pension expense and net losses from newly acquired businesses, 2022 operating results increased due to revenue growth and improved results at CSI and in home health.

The Company also holds interests in four home health and hospice joint ventures managed by GHG, whose results are included in equity in earnings of affiliates in the Company’s Consolidated Statements of Operations. In 2022 and 2021, the Company recorded equity in earnings of $8.1 million and $10.2 million, respectively, from these joint ventures. During the first quarter of 2022, GHG, through its Residential Home Health Illinois and Residential Hospice Illinois affiliates, acquired an interest in the home health and hospice assets of NorthShore University HealthSystem, an integrated healthcare delivery system serving patients throughout the Chicago, IL area. The transaction resulted in a decrease to GHG’s interest in Residential Hospice Illinois and a $0.6 million non-operating gain was recorded in the first quarter of 2022 related to the change in interest.

Automotive

A summary of automotive’s operating results is as follows:

Automotive includes six automotive dealerships in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area: Ourisman Lexus of Rockville, Ourisman Honda of Tysons Corner, Ourisman Jeep Bethesda, Ourisman Ford of Manassas, which was acquired on December 28, 2021, from the Battlefield Automotive Group, and Ourisman Toyota of Woodbridge and Ourisman Chrysler-Dodge-Jeep-Ram (CDJR) of Woodbridge, which were acquired on July 5, 2022 from the Lustine Automotive Group. Christopher J. Ourisman, a member of the Ourisman Automotive Group family of dealerships, and his team of industry professionals operates and manages the dealerships; the Company holds a 90% stake.

Revenues for 2022 increased significantly due to the acquisitions of the Ford, Toyota and CDJR dealerships; sales growth at the Jeep dealership due to an increase in new vehicle inventory provided by the manufacturer and a growing market presence; and higher average new and used car selling prices at the Lexus, Honda and Jeep dealerships as a result of strong customer demand and new vehicle inventory shortages related to supply chain disruptions and production delays at vehicle manufacturers. Revenue increases in 2022 were partially offset by lower revenues at the Honda and Lexus dealerships due to volume declines as a result of inventory shortages. Operating results for 2022 improved significantly due largely to the Ford, Toyota and CDJR acquisitions, increased sales at the Jeep dealership and increased margins at the Lexus dealership.

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Other Businesses

A summary of revenue by category for other businesses:

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Overall, revenue from other businesses increased across all categories in 2022. Retail revenue increased primarily due to the Leaf acquisition, as well as revenue growth at Framebridge; Media revenue increased primarily due to the Leaf acquisition, as well as revenue growth at Foreign Policy, partially offset by declines at Code3; and Specialty revenue increased due to significant revenue growth at Clyde’s Restaurant Group (CRG).

Overall, operating results at other businesses declined in 2022 due to $129.0 million in goodwill and intangible asset impairment charges at Leaf and increased losses at Leaf, Framebridge, Code3 and City Cast, partially offset by improved results at CRG, Decile, Pinna and Slate.

Leaf Group

On June 14, 2021, the Company acquired Leaf Group Ltd. (Leaf), a consumer internet company, headquartered in Santa Monica, CA, that builds enduring, creator-driven brands that reach passionate audiences in large and growing lifestyle categories, including fitness and wellness (Well+Good, Livestrong.com and MyPlate App), and home, art and design (Saatchi Art, Society6 and Hunker). Leaf has three major operating divisions: Society6 Group and Saatchi Art Group (Marketplace businesses) and the Media Group.

For the second half of 2022, revenue for Society6 Group and the Media Group declined substantially compared to the second half of 2021, with fourth quarter 2022 revenue declines at an accelerated level. Revenues also declined at Saatchi Art Group for the second half of 2022. Revenue decreases at Society6 Group are due to declines in traffic, conversion rates and related sales for both direct to consumer and business to business categories; revenue declines at the Media Group are due to reduced traffic and the soft digital advertising market for both direct and programmatic categories. Overall, Leaf reported significant operating losses for 2022.

As a result of the substantial revenue declines and significant operating losses at Leaf in the fourth quarter of 2022, the Company’s current outlook for digital advertising revenue and consumer demand for art and related goods at Leaf has weakened. Consequently, the Company recorded $129.0 million in goodwill and intangible asset impairment charges.

Clyde’s Restaurant Group

CRG owns and operates 11 restaurants and entertainment venues in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, including Old Ebbitt Grill and The Hamilton. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, CRG temporarily closed its restaurant dining rooms in Maryland and the District of Columbia in December 2020, reopening again for limited indoor dining service in February 2021. Various government-ordered dining restrictions continued until the middle of 2021. CRG reported an operating profit for 2022 compared with operating losses in 2021. Both revenues and operating results improved significantly in 2022 due to strong guest traffic, the absence of government-ordered dining restrictions and a favorable rent concession recorded in the second quarter of 2022.

Framebridge

Framebridge is a custom framing service company, headquartered in Washington, D.C., with 17 retail locations in the Washington, D.C., New York City, Atlanta, GA, Philadelphia, PA, Boston, MA and Chicago, IL areas and two manufacturing facilities in Kentucky and New Jersey. Framebridge has opened two additional stores in early 2023 and is exploring opportunities for further store expansion for the remainder of the year. Framebridge revenues in 2022 increased from the prior year due to operating additional retail stores compared to 2021. In the fourth quarter of 2022, Framebridge successfully managed their production operations for timely completion of holiday orders without a significant backlog. Framebridge is an investment stage business and reported significant operating losses in 2022 and 2021.

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Other

Other businesses also include Code3, a performance marketing agency focused on driving performance for brands through three core elements of digital success: media, creative and commerce; Slate and Foreign Policy, which publish online and print magazines and websites; and three investment stage businesses, Decile, Pinna and City Cast. Slate, Foreign Policy, Pinna and City Cast reported revenue increases in 2022. Losses from each of these six businesses in 2022 adversely affected operating results. Other businesses also include CyberVista, which was sold in October 2022 when the Company announced a strategic merger of CyberVista and CyberWire, a B2B cybersecurity audio network to form a new parent company, N2K Networks. The focus of N2K Networks is to expand its technology platform to enable development of more resilient enterprise cyber workforces, to pioneer new markets, and to create original “news to knowledge” audio brands. In connection with the merger, the Company recorded an $18.4 million non-cash, non-operating gain, and participated in a Series A funding round. The Company’s investment in N2K Networks is reported as an equity method investment.

Corporate Office

Corporate office includes the expenses of the Company’s corporate office and certain continuing obligations related to prior business dispositions. Corporate office expenses decreased in 2022 due primarily to a higher net credit recorded in 2022 related to fair value changes in contingent consideration related to the Framebridge acquisition.

Equity in (Losses) Earnings of Affiliates

At December 31, 2022, the Company held an approximate 12% interest in Intersection Holdings, LLC (Intersection), a company that provides digital marketing and advertising services and products for cities, transit systems, airports, and other public and private spaces. The Company also holds interests in several other affiliates, including a number of home health and hospice joint ventures managed by GHG and two joint ventures managed by Kaplan. The Company recorded equity in losses of affiliates of $2.8 million for 2022, compared to earnings of $17.9 million for 2021. These amounts include $11.8 million in net losses for 2022 and $12.6 million in net earnings for 2021 from affiliates whose operations are not managed by the Company; this includes losses from the Company’s investment in Intersection of $8.1 million in 2022 and $30.5 million in 2021. The Company also recorded $6.4 million in write-downs in equity in earnings of affiliates related to one of its investments in the third quarter of 2021.

Net Interest Expense and Related Balances

In connection with the acquisition of the Toyota and CDJR dealerships, in July 2022, the automotive subsidiary of the Company amended its commercial note due January 1, 2032, to increase the aggregate loan amount to $71.6 million. The Company also borrowed $27.2 million, comprised of three commercial notes, to purchase the real estate associated with these dealerships; the Company entered into an interest rate swap to fix the interest rate on this debt at 4.861% per annum.

The Company incurred net interest expense of $51.2 million in 2022, compared to $30.5 million in 2021. The Company recorded net interest expense of $16.5 million and $4.1 million in 2022 and 2021, respectively, to adjust the fair value of the mandatorily redeemable noncontrolling interest at GHG.

At December 31, 2022, the Company had $726.4 million in borrowings outstanding at an average interest rate of 5.7%, and cash, marketable securities and other investments of $812.8 million. At December 31, 2022, the Company had $200.2 million outstanding on its $300 million revolving credit facility. At December 31, 2021, the Company had $667.5 million in borrowings outstanding at an average interest rate of 4.3%, and cash, marketable securities and other investments of $983.3 million.

Non-Operating Pension and Postretirement Benefit Income, Net

The Company recorded net non-operating pension and postretirement benefit income of $197.9 million in 2022, compared to $109.2 million in 2021.

In the fourth quarter of 2022, the Company recorded $3.6 million in expenses related to a non-operating SIP at the education division. In the second quarter of 2021, the Company recorded $1.1 million in expenses related to a non-operating SIP at manufacturing.

(Loss) Gain on Marketable Equity Securities, Net

The Company recognized $139.6 million in net losses on marketable equity securities in 2022 compared to $243.1 million in net gains in 2021.

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Other Non-Operating Income

The Company recorded total other non-operating income, net, of $33.5 million in 2022, compared to $32.6 million in 2021. The 2022 amounts included a non-cash gain of $18.4 million on the sale of CyberVista; $4.3 million in gains related to sales of businesses and contingent consideration; a $6.9 million increase in the fair value of cost method investments; $3.3 million in gains on sales of cost method investments; a $0.6 million gain on sale of an equity affiliate, and other items; partially offset by $2.0 million in foreign currency losses and $1.3 million in impairment on a cost method investment. The 2021 amounts included $11.8 million in fair value increases on cost method investments; $9.4 million in gains on sales of cost method investments; $3.8 million in gains related to sales of businesses and contingent consideration and other items.

Provision for Income Taxes

The Company’s effective tax rate for 2022 was 42.1%. The Company’s effective tax rate in 2022 was unfavorably impacted by permanent differences related to the goodwill and intangible asset impairment charges and the interest expense recorded to adjust the fair value of the mandatorily redeemable noncontrolling interest at GHG. Excluding the impact of these items, the overall income tax rate for 2022 was 24.1%.

The Company’s effective tax rate for 2021 was 21.4%. The Company’s effective tax rate in 2021 was favorably impacted by a $17.2 million deferred tax adjustment arising from a change in the estimated deferred state income tax rate attributable to the apportionment formula used in the calculation of deferred taxes related to the Company’s pension and other postretirement plans. In addition, the Company’s effective tax rate was unfavorably impacted by permanent differences related to the goodwill and other long-lived asset impairment charges and the interest expense recorded to adjust the fair value of the mandatorily redeemable noncontrolling interest at GHG. Excluding the impact of these items, the overall income tax rate for 2021 was 24.6%.

FINANCIAL CONDITION: LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

The Company considers the following when assessing its liquidity and capital resources:

Cash generated by operations is the Company’s primary source of liquidity. The Company maintains investments in a portfolio of marketable equity securities, which is considered when assessing the Company’s sources of liquidity. An additional source of liquidity includes the undrawn portion of the Company’s $300 million five-year revolving credit facility, amounting to $99.8 million at December 31, 2022.

In March 2020, the U.S. government enacted legislation, including the CARES Act to provide stimulus in the form of financial aid to businesses affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Under the CARES Act, employers could defer the payment of the employer share of FICA taxes due for the period beginning on March 27, 2020, and ending December 31, 2020. The Company deferred $21.5 million of FICA payments under this program, with $10.7 million of the deferred payments still payable at December 31, 2021. The remaining deferred balance was paid in 2022.

The CARES Act also included provisions to support healthcare providers in the form of grants and changes to Medicare and Medicaid payments. In April 2020, GHG applied for and received $31.5 million under the expanded Medicare Accelerated and Advanced Payment Program, modified by the CARES Act. The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) started to recoup this advance in April 2021 by withholding a portion of the amount reimbursed for claims submitted for services provided after the beginning of the recoupment period. During 2021, an amount of $18.9 million was withheld by HHS with the remaining $12.6 million withheld in 2022. The advance has been recouped in full as of December 31, 2022.

Governments in other jurisdictions where the Company operates also provided relief to businesses affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in the form of job retention schemes, payroll assistance, deferral of income and other tax payments, and loans. For the year ended December 31, 2021, Kaplan recorded benefits totaling $4.7 million related to job retention and payroll schemes, mostly at Kaplan International.

During 2022, the Company’s cash and cash equivalents increased by $23.4 million, due to cash generated from operations, the net proceeds from the sale of marketable equity securities and net borrowings, which was partially offset by acquisitions, additional investments in marketable equity securities and equity securities, capital expenditures, dividend payments and share repurchases. In 2022, the Company’s borrowings increased by $58.9

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million, primarily due to additional borrowings at the automotive subsidiary, partially offset by repayments under the revolving credit facility.

As of December 31, 2022, the Company had money market investments of $7.7 million, which are included in cash and cash equivalents. The Company had no money market investments as of December 31, 2021. At December 31, 2022, the Company held approximately $132 million in cash and cash equivalents in businesses domiciled outside the U.S., of which approximately $8 million is not available for immediate use in operations or for distribution. Additionally, Kaplan’s business operations outside the U.S. retain cash balances to support ongoing working capital requirements, capital expenditures, and regulatory requirements. As a result, the Company considers a significant portion of the cash and cash equivalents balance held outside the U.S. as not readily available for use in U.S. operations.

At December 31, 2022, the fair value of the Company’s investments in marketable equity securities was $609.9 million, which includes investments in the common stock of five publicly traded companies. The Company purchased $42.1 million of marketable equity securities during 2022, of which $1.5 million was settled in January 2023. During 2022, the Company sold marketable equity securities that generated proceeds of $102.0 million. At December 31, 2022, the net unrealized gain related to the Company’s investments totaled $339.2 million.

The Company had working capital of $534.1 million and $680.8 million at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The Company maintains working capital levels consistent with its underlying business requirements and consistently generates cash from operations in excess of required interest or principal payments.

At December 31, 2022 and 2021, the Company had borrowings outstanding of $726.4 million and $667.5 million, respectively. The Company’s borrowings at December 31, 2022 were mostly from $400.0 million of 5.75% unsecured notes due June 1, 2026, $200.2 million in outstanding borrowings under the Company’s revolving credit facility and commercial notes of $116.6 million at the automotive subsidiary. The Company’s borrowings at December 31, 2021 were mostly from $400.0 million of 5.75% unsecured notes due June 1, 2026, $209.6 million in outstanding borrowings under the Company’s revolving credit facility and commercial notes of $47.0 million at the automotive subsidiary. The interest on the $400.0 million of 5.75% unsecured notes is payable semi-annually on June 1 and December 1.

On May 3, 2022, the Company amended the revolving credit facility agreement to, among other things, extend the maturity date to May 30, 2027.

During 2022 and 2021, the Company had average borrowings outstanding of approximately $689.9 million and $545.2 million, respectively, at average annual interest rates of approximately 4.8%. The Company incurred net interest expense of $51.2 million and $30.5 million, respectively, during 2022 and 2021. Included in the 2022 and 2021 interest expense is $16.5 million and $4.1 million, respectively, to adjust the fair value of the mandatorily redeemable noncontrolling interest (see Note 11).

On August 30, 2022, Moody’s affirmed the Company’s credit rating and maintained the outlook as Stable. On April 12, 2022, Standard & Poor’s affirmed the Company’s credit rating and maintained the outlook as Stable.

The Company’s current credit ratings are as follows:

The Company expects to fund its estimated capital needs primarily through existing cash balances and internally generated funds, and, as needed, from borrowings under its revolving credit facility. As of December 31, 2022, the Company had $200.2 million outstanding under the $300 million revolving credit facility. In management’s opinion, the Company will have sufficient financial resources to meet its business requirements in the next 12 months, including working capital requirements, capital expenditures, interest payments, potential acquisitions and strategic investments, dividends and stock repurchases.

In summary, the Company’s cash flows for each period were as follows:

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Operating Activities. Cash provided by operating activities is net income adjusted for certain non-cash items and changes in assets and liabilities. The Company’s net cash flow provided by operating activities were as follows:

Net cash provided by operating activities consists primarily of cash receipts from customers, less disbursements for costs, benefits, income taxes, interest and other expenses.

For 2022 compared to 2021, the increase in net cash provided by operating activities is primarily due to higher net income, net of non-cash adjustments, partially offset by changes in operating assets and liabilities. Changes in operating assets and liabilities were driven by higher purchase of inventories and decreases in accounts payable and accrued liabilities, partially offset by an increase in the collection of accounts receivable.

For 2021 compared to 2020, the decrease in net cash provided by operating activities is primarily due to changes in operating assets and liabilities, partially offset by higher net income, net of non-cash adjustments. Changes in operating assets and liabilities were driven by a decrease in the collection of accounts receivable and partial repayment of advances related to the CARES Act, partially offset by other increases in accounts payable and accrued liabilities and deferred revenue.

Investing Activities. The Company’s net cash flow (used in) provided by investing activities were as follows:

Acquisitions. During 2022, the Company acquired seven businesses: five in healthcare and two in automotive, for $143.2 million in cash and contingent consideration and the assumption of floor plan payables. GHG acquired two small businesses in August 2022, a 100% interest in a multi-state provider of Applied Behavioral Analysis clinics in July 2022, and two small businesses in May 2022. In July 2022, the Company’s automotive subsidiary acquired two automotive dealerships, including the real property for the dealership operations. In addition to a cash payment and the assumption of $10.9 million in floor plan payables, the automotive subsidiary borrowed $77.4 million to finance the acquisition. During 2021, the Company acquired six businesses: two small businesses in its education division, two small businesses in healthcare, one new auto dealership in automotive, and all the outstanding shares of Leaf for cash and the assumption of $9.2 million in liabilities related to their pre-acquisition stock compensation plan, which will be paid in the future. Leaf is included in other businesses. During 2020, the Company acquired three businesses: two small businesses in its education division and an additional interest in Framebridge, Inc., which is included in other businesses. The Framebridge purchase price included $54.3 million in deferred payments and contingent consideration based on the acquiree achieving certain revenue milestones in the future.

Capital Expenditures. The 2022 and 2020 capital expenditures are lower than 2021 due to significant land and building purchases at Kaplan International’s sixth-form college in London, U.K. and at the automotive subsidiary in 2021. The 2020 capital expenditures include spending in connection with spectrum repacking at the Company’s television stations in Detroit, MI, Jacksonville, FL, and Roanoke, VA, as mandated by the FCC; these spectrum repacking expenditures were largely reimbursed to the Company by the FCC. The amounts reflected in the Company’s Statements of Cash Flows are based on cash payments made during the relevant periods, whereas the Company’s capital expenditures for 2022, 2021 and 2020 disclosed in Note 19 to the Consolidated Financial Statements include assets acquired during the year. The Company estimates that its capital expenditures will be in the range of $85 million to $95 million in 2023.

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Net Proceeds from Sales of Investments and Businesses. During 2022, 2021 and 2020, the Company sold marketable securities that generated proceeds of $102.0 million, $65.5 million and $93.8 million, respectively. The Company purchased $42.1 million, of which $1.5 million was settled in January 2023, $48.0 million and $20.0 million of marketable equity securities during 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. In December 2020, the Company completed the sale of Megaphone; the total net proceeds from the sale were $223.0 million.

Investment in Equity Affiliates. During 2022, GHG invested an additional $18.5 million in two affiliates to fund their acquisition of an interest in a health system in Illinois and the Company also made an additional investment of $5.0 million in N2K Networks, the new parent entity formed through the CyberVista transaction.

Financing Activities. The Company’s net cash flow (used in) provided by financing activities were as follows:

Borrowings and Vehicle Floor Plan Payable. In July 2022, the Company’s automotive subsidiary amended its commercial note to, among other things, increase the aggregate loan amount to $71.6 million and entered into three commercial notes in an aggregate amount of $27.2 million. The additional borrowings were used to acquire two automotive dealerships, including the real property for the dealership operations. In 2021, the Company borrowed against the $300 million revolving credit facility, which borrowing was used to purchase land and buildings at Kaplan International’s sixth-form college in London, U.K. and at the automotive subsidiary and, to a lesser extent, to repurchase stock and fund various acquisitions during the fourth quarter of 2021. In addition, the automotive subsidiary borrowed $47.3 million, which was used to repay the outstanding balance of the term loan due on January 31, 2029 and fund the acquisition of an automotive dealership in the fourth quarter. In 2020, the Company borrowed £60 million against the $300 million revolving credit facility and used the proceeds to repay the £60 million outstanding balance under the Kaplan Credit Agreement that matured at the end of June 2020. In 2022, 2021, and 2020, the Company used vehicle floor plan financing to fund the purchase of new, used and service loaner vehicles at its automotive subsidiary. The proceeds from (repayments of) the vehicle floor plan payable fluctuates with changes in the amount of vehicle inventory held by the automotive dealerships.

Common Stock Repurchases. During 2022, 2021, and 2020, the Company purchased a total of 121,761, 93,969, and 406,112 shares, respectively, of its Class B common stock at a cost of approximately $71.4 million, $55.7 million, and $161.8 million, respectively. On September 10, 2020, the Board of Directors authorized the Company to acquire up to 500,000 shares of its Class B common stock. The Company did not announce a ceiling price or time limit for the purchases. At December 31, 2022, the Company had remaining authorization from the Board of Directors to purchase up to 148,421 shares of Class B common stock.

Dividends. The annual dividend rate per share was $6.32, $6.04 and $5.80 in 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. The Company expects to pay a dividend of $6.60 per share in 2023.

Other. In 2022, the Company paid $5.7 million related to contingent consideration and deferred payments from prior acquisitions. In 2021, the Company paid $30.9 million related to contingent consideration and deferred payments from prior acquisitions, mostly for the 2020 acquisition of Framebridge. In March 2021, Hoover’s minority shareholders put their remaining outstanding shares to the Company, which had a redemption value of $3.5 million. In 2020, the Company received $25.1 million in proceeds from the exercise of stock options.

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Contractual Obligations. The following reflects a summary of the Company’s contractual obligations as of December 31, 2022:

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(1)    Includes commitments for the Company’s television broadcasting business that are reflected in the Company’s Consolidated Financial Statements and commitments to purchase programming to be produced in future years.

(2)    Includes purchase obligations related to employment agreements, capital projects and other legally binding commitments. Other purchase orders made in the ordinary course of business are excluded from the table above. Any amounts for which the Company is liable under purchase orders are reflected in the Company’s Consolidated Balance Sheets as accounts payable and accrued liabilities.

(3)    Primarily made up of multiemployer pension plan withdrawal obligations and postretirement benefit obligations other than pensions. The Company has other long-term liabilities excluded from the table above, including obligations for deferred compensation, long-term incentive plans and long-term deferred revenue.

Other.  The Company does not have any off-balance-sheet arrangements or financing activities with special-purpose entities (SPEs).

CRITICAL ACCOUNTING POLICIES AND ESTIMATES

The preparation of financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles requires management to make estimates and judgments that affect the amounts reported in the financial statements. On an ongoing basis, the Company evaluates its estimates and assumptions. The Company bases its estimates on historical experience and other assumptions believed to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying value of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results could differ from these estimates.

An accounting policy is considered to be critical if it is important to the Company’s financial condition and results and if it requires management’s most difficult, subjective and complex judgments in its application. For a summary of all of the Company’s significant accounting policies, see Note 2 to the Company’s Consolidated Financial Statements.

Revenue Recognition, Trade Accounts Receivable and Allowance for Credit Losses. Education revenue is primarily derived from postsecondary education services, professional education and test preparation services. Revenue, net of any refunds, corporate discounts, scholarships and employee tuition discounts is recognized ratably over the instruction period or access period for higher education and supplemental education services.

At Kaplan International and Kaplan Supplemental Education, estimates of average student course length are developed for each course, along with estimates for the anticipated level of student drops and refunds from test performance guarantees, and these estimates are evaluated on an ongoing basis and adjusted as necessary. As Kaplan’s businesses and related course offerings have changed, including more online programs, the complexity and significance of management’s estimates have increased.

KHE provides non-academic operations support services to Purdue Global pursuant to a TOSA, which includes technology support, help-desk functions, human resources support for faculty and employees, admissions support, financial aid administration, marketing and advertising, back-office business functions, and certain student recruitment services. KHE is not entitled to receive any reimbursement of costs incurred in providing support services, or any fee, unless and until Purdue Global has first covered all of its academic costs (subject to a cap), received payment for cost efficiencies, if any, and during the first five years of the TOSA receive a priority payment of $10 million per year in addition to the operating cost reimbursements and cost efficiency payments. KHE will receive reimbursement for its operating costs of providing the support services after payment of Purdue Global’s operating costs, cost efficiency payments, and priority payment. If there are sufficient revenues, KHE may be entitled to a cost efficiency payment, if any, and additional fee equal to 12.5% of Purdue Global’s revenue. Subject to certain limitations, a portion of the fee that is earned by KHE in one year may be carried over to subsequent years for payment to Kaplan.

The support fee and reimbursement for KHE support costs are entirely dependent on the availability of cash at the end of Purdue Global’s fiscal year (June 30), and therefore, all consideration in the contract is variable. The Company uses significant judgment to forecast the operating results of Purdue Global, the availability of cash at the end of each fiscal year, and the consideration it expects to receive from Purdue Global annually. Key assumptions used in the forecast model include student census and degree enrollment data, Purdue Global and KHE expenses, changes to working capital, contractually stipulated minimum payments, and lead conversion rates. The forecast is

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updated as uncertainties are resolved. The Company reviews and updates the assumptions regularly, as a significant change in one or more of these estimates could affect revenue recognized. Changes to the estimated variable consideration were not material for the year ended December 31, 2022.

A Kaplan International business has a contract with an examination body through August 2029 comprised of two performance obligations, one to build and create a professional exam and another to manage the delivery of that exam to qualified candidates. The first obligation was completed in 2021. The second obligation began after the first obligation was completed and is expected to continue through the end of the contract term. Revenues are recognized for both of these obligations by allocating the transaction price based on forecasted financial results and the use of a market-based profit margin applied to costs incurred during the financial reporting period. This profit margin, determined at contract inception, is different for each obligation as a result of the different value created by each distinct obligation. The forecast, including key assumptions such as expected candidate volumes and related exam-management expenses, is updated as future uncertainties are resolved, which may result in changes to the transaction price. The Company reviews and updates the assumptions regularly, as a significant change in one or more of these estimates could affect revenue recognized. Changes to the estimated variable consideration were not material for the year ended December 31, 2022.

The determination of whether revenue should be reported on a gross or net basis is based on an assessment of whether the Company acts as a principal or an agent in the transaction. In certain cases, the Company is considered the agent, and the Company records revenue equal to the net amount retained when the fee is earned. In these cases, costs incurred with third-party suppliers is excluded from the Company’s revenue. The Company assesses whether it obtained control of the specified goods or services before they are transferred to the customer as part of this assessment. In addition, the Company considers other indicators such as the party primarily responsible for fulfillment, inventory risk and discretion in establishing price.

Accounts receivable have been reduced by an allowance that reflects the current expected credit losses associated with the receivables. This estimated allowance is based on historical write-offs, current macroeconomic conditions, reasonable and supportable forecasts of future economic conditions and management’s evaluation of the financial condition of the customer. The Company generally considers an account past due or delinquent when a student or customer misses a scheduled payment. The Company writes off accounts receivable balances deemed uncollectible against the allowance for credit losses following the passage of a certain period of time, or generally when the account is turned over for collection to an outside collection agency.

Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets.  The Company has a significant amount of goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets that are reviewed at least annually for possible impairment.

The Company performs its annual goodwill and intangible assets impairment test as of November 30. Goodwill and other intangible assets are reviewed for possible impairment between annual tests if an event occurred or circumstances changed that would more likely than not reduce the fair value of the reporting unit or other intangible assets below its carrying value.

Goodwill

The Company tests its goodwill at the reporting unit level, which is an operating segment or one level below an operating segment. The Company initially performs an assessment of qualitative factors to determine if it is necessary to perform a quantitative goodwill impairment test. The Company quantitatively tests goodwill for impairment if, based on its assessment of the qualitative factors, it determines that it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, or if it decides to bypass the qualitative assessment. The quantitative goodwill impairment test compares the estimated fair value of a reporting unit with its carrying amount, including goodwill. An impairment charge is recognized for the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds the reporting unit’s fair value.

In conjunction with the Company’s annual impairment review, as a result of the weakened current outlook for digital advertising and consumer demand for art and related goods following substantial declines in revenues and significant operating losses at Leaf, the Company recorded a $84.5 million and $17.6 million goodwill impairment charge at the Leaf Media and Leaf Marketplace reporting units, respectively. The Company estimated the fair value of the reporting units by utilizing a discounted cash flow model. The carrying value of each reporting unit exceeded its estimated fair value, resulting in a goodwill impairment charge for the amount by which the carrying value

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exceeded the estimated fair value after taking into account the effect of deferred income taxes. As a result of the impairment charge, no goodwill remains at the Leaf Marketplace reporting unit. Leaf is included in other businesses.

The Company had 20 reporting units as of December 31, 2022. The reporting units with significant goodwill balances as of December 31, 2022, were as follows, representing 90% of the total goodwill of the Company:

As of November 30, 2022, in connection with the Company’s annual impairment testing, the Company decided to perform the quantitative goodwill impairment process at all of the reporting units. The Company’s policy requires the performance of a quantitative impairment review of the goodwill at least once every three years. The Company used a discounted cash flow model, and, where appropriate, a market value approach was also utilized to supplement the discounted cash flow model to determine the estimated fair value of its reporting units. The Company made estimates and assumptions regarding future cash flows, discount rates, long-term growth rates and market values to determine each reporting unit’s estimated fair value. The methodology used to estimate the fair value of the Company’s reporting units on November 30, 2022, was consistent with the one used during the 2021 annual goodwill impairment test.

The Company made changes to certain of its assumptions utilized in the discounted cash flow models for 2022 compared with the prior year to take into account changes in the economic environment, regulations and their impact on the Company’s businesses. The key assumptions used by the Company were as follows:

•    Expected cash flows underlying the Company’s business plans for the periods 2023 through 2027 were used. The Company used expected cash flows for the periods 2023 through 2032 for the Hoover, Dekko, Framebridge, Leaf Media and Leaf Marketplace reporting units. The expected cash flows took into account historical growth rates, the effect of the changed economic outlook at the Company’s businesses, industry challenges and an estimate for the possible impact of any applicable regulations.

•    Cash flows beyond 2027 and 2032, where applicable, were projected to grow at a long-term growth rate, which the Company estimated between 1.5% and 3% for each reporting unit.

•    The Company used a discount rate of 10% to 23% to risk adjust the cash flow projections in determining the estimated fair value.

The fair value of each of the reporting units exceeded its respective carrying value as of November 30, 2022, with the exception of the Leaf Media and Leaf Marketplace reporting units as described above.

The estimated fair values of the Dekko, Framebridge, and Leaf Media reporting units exceeded their carrying values by a margin less than 25%. The Company recorded goodwill impairments at the Leaf Media and Dekko reporting units in 2022 and 2021, respectively. The total goodwill at these reporting units was $166.4 million as of December 31, 2022, or 11% of the total goodwill of the Company. There exists a reasonable possibility that a decrease in the assumed projected cash flows or long-term growth rate, or an increase in the discount rate assumption used in the discounted cash flow model of these reporting units, could result in additional impairment charges.

The estimated fair value of the Company’s other reporting units with significant goodwill balances exceeded their respective carrying values by a margin in excess of 25%. It is possible that impairment charges could occur in the future, as changes in market conditions and the inherent variability in projecting future operating performance could result in adverse changes in projections for future operating results or other key assumptions, such as projected revenue, profit margin, capital expenditures or cash flows associated with fair value estimates and could lead to additional future impairments, which could be material.

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Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets

The Company initially assesses qualitative factors to determine if it is more likely than not that the fair value of its indefinite-lived intangible assets is less than its carrying value. The Company compares the fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible asset with its carrying value if the qualitative factors indicate it is more likely than not that the fair value of the asset is less than its carrying value or if it decides to bypass the qualitative assessment. The Company records an impairment loss if the carrying value of the indefinite-lived intangible assets exceeds the fair value of the assets for the difference in the values. The Company uses a discounted cash flow model, and, in certain cases, a market value approach is also utilized to supplement the discounted cash flow model to determine the estimated fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible assets. The Company makes estimates and assumptions regarding future cash flows, discount rates, long-term growth rates and other market values to determine the estimated fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible assets. The Company’s policy requires the performance of a quantitative impairment review of the indefinite-lived intangible assets at least once every three years.

The Company’s intangible assets with an indefinite life are principally from trade names, franchise rights and FCC licenses. The fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible assets exceeded their respective carrying values as of November 30, 2022. There is always a possibility that impairment charges could occur in the future, as changes in market conditions and the inherent variability in projecting future operating performance could result in adverse changes in projections for future operating results or other key assumptions, such as projected revenue, profit margin, capital expenditures or cash flows associated with fair value estimates and could lead to additional future impairments, which could be material.

Pension Costs.  The Company sponsors a defined benefit pension plan for eligible employees in the U.S. Excluding curtailment gains, settlement gains and special termination benefits, the Company’s net pension credit was $170.2 million, $93.0 million and $55.4 million for 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. The Company’s pension benefit obligation and related credits are actuarially determined and are impacted significantly by the Company’s assumptions related to future events, including the discount rate, expected return on plan assets and rate of compensation increases. The Company evaluates these critical assumptions at least annually and, periodically, evaluates other assumptions involving demographic factors, such as retirement age, mortality and turnover, and updates them to reflect its experience and expectations for the future. Actual results in any given year will often differ from actuarial assumptions because of economic and other factors.

The Company assumed a 6.25% expected return on plan assets for 2022, 2021 and 2020. The Company’s actual (loss) return on plan assets was (23.4%) in 2022, 24.4% in 2021 and 25.4% in 2020. The 10-year and 20-year actual returns on plan assets on an annual basis were 8.8% and 8.6%, respectively.

Accumulated and projected benefit obligations are measured as the present value of future cash payments. The Company discounts those cash payments using the weighted average of market-observed yields for high-quality fixed-income securities with maturities that correspond to the payment of benefits. Lower discount rates increase present values and generally increase subsequent-year pension costs; higher discount rates decrease present values and decrease subsequent-year pension costs. The Company’s discount rate at December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, was 5.5%, 2.9% and 2.5%, respectively, reflecting market interest rates.

Changes in key assumptions for the Company’s pension plan would have had the following effects on the 2022 pension credit, excluding curtailment gains, settlement gains and special termination benefits:

•    Expected return on assets – A 1% increase or decrease to the Company’s assumed expected return on plan assets would have increased or decreased the pension credit by approximately $26.8 million.

•    Discount rate – A 1% decrease to the Company’s assumed discount rate would have decreased the pension credit by approximately $15.0 million. A 1% increase to the Company’s assumed discount rate would have increased the pension credit by approximately $12.4 million.

The Company’s net pension credit includes an expected return on plan assets component, calculated using the expected return on plan assets assumption applied to a market-related value of plan assets. The market-related value of plan assets is determined using a five-year average market value method, which recognizes realized and unrealized appreciation and depreciation in market values over a five-year period. The value resulting from applying this method is adjusted, if necessary, such that it cannot be less than 80% or more than 120% of the market value of plan assets as of the relevant measurement date. As a result, year-to-year increases or decreases in the market-related value of plan assets impact the return on plan assets component of pension credit for the year.

At the end of each year, differences between the actual return on plan assets and the expected return on plan assets are combined with other differences in actual versus expected experience to form a net unamortized actuarial gain or loss in accumulated other comprehensive income. Only those net actuarial gains or losses in excess of the deferred realized and unrealized appreciation and depreciation are potentially subject to amortization.

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The types of items that generate actuarial gains and losses that may be subject to amortization in net periodic pension (credit) cost include the following:

•    Asset returns that are more or less than the expected return on plan assets for the year;

•    Actual participant demographic experience different from assumed (retirements, terminations and deaths during the year);

•    Actual salary increases different from assumed; and

•    Any changes in assumptions that are made to better reflect anticipated experience of the plan or to reflect current market conditions on the measurement date (discount rate, longevity increases, changes in expected participant behavior and expected return on plan assets).

Amortization of the unrecognized actuarial gain or loss is included as a component of pension credit for a year if the magnitude of the net unamortized gain or loss in accumulated other comprehensive income exceeds 10% of the greater of the benefit obligation or the market-related value of assets (10% corridor). The amortization component is equal to that excess divided by the average remaining service period of active employees expected to receive benefits under the plan. At the end of 2019, the Company had no net unamortized actuarial gains in accumulated other comprehensive income subject to amortization outside the 10% corridor, and therefore, no amortized gain was included in the pension credit for 2020.

During 2020, there were significant pension asset gains offset by a decrease in the discount rate that resulted in net unamortized actuarial gains in accumulated other comprehensive income subject to amortization outside the 10% corridor, and therefore, an amortized gain of $7.9 million was included in the pension credit for 2021.

During 2021, there were significant pension asset gains and an increase in the discount rate that resulted in net unamortized actuarial gains in accumulated other comprehensive income subject to amortization outside the 10% corridor, and therefore, an amortized gain of $68.7 million was included in the pension credit for 2022.

During 2022, there were significant pension asset losses partially offset by an increase in the discount rate. The Company currently estimates that there will be net unamortized actuarial gains in accumulated other comprehensive income subject to amortization outside the 10% corridor, and therefore, an amortized gain amount of $40.6 million is included in the estimated pension credit for 2023.

Overall, the Company estimates that it will record a net pension credit of approximately $109 million in 2023.

Note 15 to the Company’s Consolidated Financial Statements provides additional details surrounding pension costs and related assumptions.

Accounting for Income Taxes.

Valuation Allowances

Deferred income taxes arise from temporary differences between the tax and financial statement recognition of assets and liabilities. In evaluating its ability to recover deferred tax assets within the jurisdiction from which they arise, the Company considers all available positive and negative evidence, including scheduled reversals of deferred tax liabilities, projected future taxable income, tax planning strategies and recent financial operations. These assumptions require significant judgment about forecasts of future taxable income.

As of December 31, 2022, the Company had state income tax net operating loss carryforwards of $1,049.7 million, which will expire at various future dates. Also at December 31, 2022, the Company had $91.1 million of non-U.S. income tax loss carryforwards, of which $50.7 million may be carried forward indefinitely; $26.0 million of losses that, if unutilized, will expire in varying amounts through 2027; and $14.4 million of losses that, if unutilized, will start to expire after 2027. At December 31, 2022, the Company has established approximately $62.8 million in total valuation allowances, primarily against deferred state tax assets, net of U.S. Federal income taxes, and non-U.S. deferred tax assets, as the Company believes that it is more likely than not that the benefit from certain state and non-U.S. net operating loss carryforwards and other deferred tax assets will not be realized. The Company has established valuation allowances against state income tax benefits recognized, without considering potentially offsetting deferred tax liabilities established with respect to prepaid pension cost and goodwill. Prepaid pension cost and goodwill have not been considered a source of future taxable income for realizing deferred tax benefits recognized since these temporary differences are not likely to reverse in the foreseeable future. However, certain deferred state tax assets have an indefinite life. As a result, the Company has considered deferred tax liabilities for prepaid pension cost and goodwill as a source of future taxable income for realizing those deferred state tax assets. The valuation allowances established against state and non-U.S. income tax benefits recorded may increase or decrease within the next 12 months, based on operating results, the market value of investment holdings or

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business and tax planning strategies; as a result, the Company is unable to estimate the potential tax impact, given the uncertain operating and market environment. The Company will be monitoring future operating results and projected future operating results on a quarterly basis to determine whether the valuation allowances provided against state and non-U.S. deferred tax assets should be increased or decreased, as future circumstances warrant.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements.  See Note 2 to the Company’s Consolidated Financial Statements for a discussion of recent accounting pronouncements.

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