TRUPANION, INC. (TRUP) FY 2023 MD&A

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

Please read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with our consolidated financial statements and related notes included under Part II, Item 8 of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

This section of this Form 10-K generally discusses 2023 and 2022 items and year-to-year comparisons between 2023 and 2022. Discussions of 2021 items and year-to-year comparisons between 2022 and 2021 that are not included in this Form 10-K can be found in "Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" in Part II, Item 7 of the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2022.

Overview

We provide medical insurance for cats and dogs in the United States, Canada, Continental Europe, and Australia. Through our data-driven, vertically-integrated approach, we develop and offer high value medical insurance products, priced specifically for each pet’s unique characteristics and coverage level. Our growing and loyal membership base provides us with highly predictable and recurring revenue.

We operate in two business segments: subscription business and other business. We generate revenue in our subscription business segment primarily by subscription fees from direct-to-consumer products. We operate our subscription business segment similar to other subscription-based businesses, with a focus on achieving a target margin prior to our new pet acquisition expense and acquiring as many pets as possible at our targeted average estimated internal rate of return. Within our subscription business, we also provide "Powered by Trupanion" pet insurance product offerings marketed by third parties, and, in Canada, low and medium ARPU products marketed under the brand names Furkin and PHI Direct. We provide a full suite of services and support for these products and they are designed to align with the target margin profile of our subscription business segment. Within our subscription business segment we also offer products in Continental Europe, which are currently underwritten using third-party underwriters.

Our other business segment is comprised of revenue from other product offerings, with third parties with whom we generally have a business-to-business relationship. This business segment has a different margin profile than our subscription segment and includes revenue from writing policies on behalf of third parties and revenue from other products and insurance software solutions. This segment of our business is not part of our core business strategy and generally has a lower margin. Over time it is reasonable to expect changes to this segment which may impact the revenue contribution due to a partner or partners rolling off to new underwriters.

We generate leads for our subscription business segment from a diverse set of member acquisition channels, which we then convert into members through our contact center, website and other direct-to-consumer activities. These channels include leads from third-parties such as veterinarians and referrals from existing members. Veterinary hospitals represent our largest referral source. We engage our “Territory Partners” to have face-to-face visits with veterinarians and their staff. Territory Partners are dedicated to cultivating direct veterinary relationships and building awareness of the benefits of high quality medical insurance to veterinarians and their clients. Veterinarians then educate pet owners, who visit our website or call our contact center to learn more about, and potentially enroll in, Trupanion. We also receive a significant number of new leads from existing members adding pets and referring their friends and family members. Our direct-to-consumer acquisition channels serve as important resources for pet owner education and drive new member leads and conversion. We monitor average pet acquisition cost to evaluate the efficiency in acquiring new members and measure effectiveness based on our targeted return on investment.

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Key Operating Metrics

The following tables set forth total pets enrolled and key operating metrics for our subscription business for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, and for each of the last eight fiscal quarters.

Total pets enrolled and total subscription pets enrolled include pet enrollments in European markets, where policies are currently underwritten by third parties and Trupanion is acting as an insurance broker. Per pet metrics, however, exclude these European policies, as their revenue is currently earned from commissions, as opposed to the gross underwriting premiums earned by the remainder of our subscription business.

Total pets enrolled. Total pets enrolled reflects the number of subscription pets or pets enrolled in one of the insurance products offered in our other business segment at the end of each period presented. We monitor total pets enrolled because it provides an indication of the growth of our consolidated business.

Total subscription pets enrolled. Total subscription pets enrolled reflects the number of pets in active memberships at the end of each period presented. We monitor total subscription pets enrolled because it provides an indication of the growth of our subscription business.

Monthly average revenue per pet. Monthly average revenue per pet is calculated as amounts billed in a given period for subscriptions divided by the total number of subscription pet months in the period. Total subscription pet months in a period represents the sum of all subscription pets enrolled for each month during the period. We monitor monthly average revenue per pet because it is an indicator of the per pet unit economics of our subscription business.

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Lifetime value of a pet, including fixed expenses. Lifetime value of a pet, including fixed expenses, is calculated based on subscription revenue less cost of revenue from our subscription business segment for the 12 months prior to the period end date excluding stock-based compensation expense related to cost of revenue from our subscription business segment, sign-up fee revenue and the change in deferred revenue between periods. This amount is also reduced by the fixed expenses related to our subscription business, which are the pro-rata portion of general and administrative and technology and development expenses, less stock-based compensation, based on revenues. This amount, on a per pet basis, is multiplied by the implied average subscriber life in months. Implied average subscriber life in months is calculated as the quotient obtained by dividing one by one minus the average monthly retention rate. We monitor lifetime value of a pet, including fixed expenses, to estimate the value we might expect from new pets over their implied average subscriber life in months, if they behave like the average pet in that respective period. When evaluating the amount of pet acquisition expenses we may want to incur to attract new pet enrollments, we refer to the lifetime value of a pet, including fixed expenses, as well as our estimated internal rate of return calculation for an average pet, which also includes an estimated surplus capital charge, to inform the amount of acquisition spend in relation to the estimated payback period.

Average pet acquisition cost. Average pet acquisition cost (PAC) is calculated as net acquisition cost divided by the total number of new subscription pets enrolled in that period. Net acquisition cost, a non-GAAP financial measure, is calculated in a reporting period as new pet acquisition expense, excluding stock-based compensation expense, other business segment expense, offset by sign-up fee revenue. We exclude stock-based compensation expense because the amount varies from period to period based on number of awards issued and market-based valuation inputs. We offset sign-up fee revenue because it is a one-time charge to new members collected at the time of enrollment used to partially offset initial setup costs, which are included in new pet acquisition expenses. We exclude other business segment pet acquisition expense because that does not relate to subscription enrollments. We monitor average pet acquisition cost to evaluate the efficiency in acquiring new members and measure effectiveness based on our targeted return on investment.

Average monthly retention. Average monthly retention is measured as the monthly retention rate of enrolled subscription pets for each applicable period averaged over the 12 months prior to the period end date. As such, our average monthly retention rate as of December 31, 2023 is an average of each month’s retention from January 1, 2023 through December 31, 2023. We calculate monthly retention as the number of pets that remain after subtracting all pets that cancel during a month, including pets that enroll and cancel within that month, divided by the total pets enrolled at the beginning of that month. We monitor average monthly retention because it provides a measure of member satisfaction and allows us to calculate the implied average subscriber life in months.

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Non-GAAP Financial Measures

In addition to our results determined in accordance with U.S. GAAP, we believe the following non-GAAP financial measures are useful in evaluating our operating performance. We use the following non-GAAP financial information to evaluate our ongoing operations and for internal planning and forecasting purposes. We believe that these non-GAAP financial measures, when taken collectively, may be helpful to investors in providing consistency and comparability with past financial performance. However, non-GAAP financial information is presented for supplemental informational purposes only, has limitations as an analytical tool, and should not be considered in isolation, or as a substitute for, the directly comparable financial measures prepared in accordance with GAAP.

We calculate these non-GAAP financial measures by excluding certain non-cash or non-recurring expenses. We exclude non-recurring transactions and restructuring expenses as they are not indicative of our operating performance. We exclude stock-based compensation as it is non-cash in nature. Although stock-based compensation expenses are expected to remain recurring expenses for the foreseeable future, we believe excluding them allows investors to make meaningful comparisons between our recurring core business operating results and those of other companies. We define non-GAAP development expenses as operating expenses incurred to develop new products and offerings that are pre-revenue. We define non-GAAP fixed expenses as the total of technology and development expense and general and administrative expense, less stock-based compensation expense, non-recurring transaction and restructuring expense, and development expenses related to exploring and developing new products and offerings that generally are in the pre-revenue stage or not at scale.

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The following tables present the reconciliation of our non-GAAP financial measures from corresponding GAAP measures for the periods presented (in thousands):

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When determining our PAC, we calculate net acquisition cost for a more comparable metric across periods. Net acquisition cost, a non-GAAP financial measure, is calculated in a reporting period as GAAP new pet acquisition expense, excluding stock-based compensation expense, other business segment expense, and pet acquisition expense for commission-based policies, offset by sign-up fee revenue. We exclude stock-based compensation expense because the amount varies from period to period based on the number of awards issued and market-based valuation inputs. We exclude other business segment pet acquisition expense because it does not relate to subscription enrollments. We exclude pet acquisition expense for commission-based policies because the revenue of these products is earned from commissions from a third party underwriter, as opposed to the gross underwriting premiums earned by the remainder of our subscription business. We offset sign-up fee revenue because it is a one-time charge to new members collected at the time of enrollment used to partially offset initial setup costs, which are included in new pet acquisition expenses.

The following tables reconcile GAAP new pet acquisition expense to non-GAAP net acquisition cost (in thousands) for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022, and 2021, and for each of the last eight fiscal quarters:

Components of Operating Results

General

We operate in two business segments: subscription business and other business. We generate revenue in our subscription business segment primarily by subscription fees from direct-to-consumer products. We operate our subscription business segment similar to other subscription-based businesses, with a focus on achieving a target margin prior to our pet acquisition expense and acquiring as many pets as possible at our targeted average estimated internal rate of return. Within our subscription business, we also provide "Powered by Trupanion" pet insurance product offerings marketed by third parties and, in Canada, low and medium ARPU products marketed under the brand names Furkin and PHI Direct. We provide a full suite of services and support for these products and they are designed to align with the target margin profile of our subscription business segment. Within our subscription business segment we also offer products in Continental Europe, which are currently underwritten using third-party underwriters.

Our other business segment is comprised of revenue from other product offerings with third parties with whom we generally have a business-to-business relationship. This business segment has different margin profile than our subscription segment and includes revenue from writing policies on behalf of third parties and revenue from other products and insurance software solutions.

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Revenue

We generate revenue in our subscription business segment primarily from subscription fees for our pet medical insurance. Fees are paid at the beginning of each subscription period. In most cases, our members authorize us to directly charge their credit card, debit card or bank account through automatic funds transfer. Subscription revenue is recognized on a pro rata basis over the enrollment term. Membership may be canceled at any time without penalty, and we issue a refund for the unused portion of the canceled membership. We also generate a portion of our subscription business segment revenue through commissions earned in our European markets, where policies are currently underwritten by third parties and Trupanion is acting as an insurance broker.

We generate revenue in our other business segment primarily from writing policies on behalf of third parties where we do not undertake the direct consumer marketing. This segment also includes revenue from other products and insurance software solutions that have a different margin profile from our subscription business.

Cost of Revenue

Cost of revenue in each of our segments is comprised of the following:

Veterinary invoice expense

Veterinary invoice expense includes our costs to review and pay veterinary invoices, administer the payments, and provide member services, and other operating expenses directly or indirectly related to this process. We also accrue for veterinary invoices that have been incurred but not yet received and for the estimated internal costs of processing those invoices. This also includes amounts paid by unaffiliated general agents on our behalf, and an estimate of amounts incurred and not yet paid for our other business segment.

Other cost of revenue

Other cost of revenue for the subscription business segment includes direct and indirect member service expenses, Territory Partner renewal fees, payment processing fees and premium tax expenses. Other cost of revenue for the other business segment includes the commissions we pay to unaffiliated general agents, costs to administer the programs in the other business segment and premium taxes on the sales in this segment.

Operating Expenses

Our operating expenses are classified into four categories: technology and development, general and administrative, new pet acquisition expense, and depreciation and amortization. For each category, except depreciation and amortization, the largest component is personnel costs, which include salaries, employee benefit costs, bonuses and stock-based compensation expense.

Technology and development

Technology and development expenses primarily consist of personnel costs and related expenses for our technology staff, which includes information technology development and infrastructure support, including third-party services. It also includes expenses associated with development in new geographies and new products and offerings.

General and administrative

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of personnel costs and related expenses for our finance, actuarial, human resources, regulatory, legal and general management functions, as well as facilities and professional services.

New pet acquisition expense

New pet acquisition expenses primarily consist of costs, including personnel costs, to educate veterinarians and consumers about the benefits of Trupanion, to generate leads and to convert leads into enrolled pets, as well as print, online and promotional advertising costs.

Depreciation and amortization

Depreciation and amortization expenses consist of depreciation of property, equipment, and software developed for internal use, as well as amortization of finite-lived intangible assets.

Gain (loss) from investment in joint venture

Gain (loss) from investment in joint venture consists of the share of income and losses from our equity method investment in a joint venture, as well as income and expenses associated with administrative services provided to the joint venture.

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Stock-based compensation

Stock-based compensation is included in the cost and expense line items above. Stock-based compensation will vary depending on corporate performance and terms of the awards under our equity incentive plan. For example, when we have delivered strong performance, stock-based compensation may increase as a result of incentive-based awards under our equity incentive plan.

Factors Affecting Our Performance

Average monthly retention. Our performance depends on our ability to continue to retain our existing and newly enrolled pets and is impacted by our ability to provide a best-in-class value and member experience. Our ability to retain enrolled pets depends on a number of factors, including the actual and perceived value of our services and the quality of our member experience, the ease and transparency of the process for reviewing and paying veterinary invoices for our members, the rate of veterinary inflation and of our pricing adjustments, and the competitive environment. In addition, other initiatives across our business may temporarily impact retention and make it difficult for us to improve or maintain this metric. For example, if the number of new pets enrolled increases at a faster rate than our historical experience, our average monthly retention rate could be adversely impacted, as our retention rate is generally lower during the first year of member enrollment.

Investment in pet acquisition. We have made and may continue to make significant investments to grow our member base. Our net acquisition cost and the number of new members we enroll depends on a number of factors, including the amount we have available and we elect to invest in pet acquisition activities in any particular period in the aggregate and by channel, the frequency of existing members adding a pet or referring their friends or family, the effectiveness of our sales execution and marketing initiatives, changes in costs of media, the mix of our pet acquisition expenditures and the competitive environment. Our average pet acquisition cost has in the past significantly varied, and in the future may significantly vary, from period to period based upon specific marketing initiatives and estimated rates of return on pet acquisition spend. We also regularly test new member acquisition channels and marketing initiatives, which may be more expensive than our traditional marketing channels and may increase our average acquisition costs. We continually assess our pet acquisition activities by monitoring the estimated return on PAC spend both on a detailed level by acquisition channel and in the aggregate.

Timing of price adjustments. Our subscription business’s cost-plus model depends on our ability to estimate our operating costs and expenses, including veterinary invoice expenses, and to adjust our pricing to achieve our target returns. We regularly reevaluate and adjust the price of our subscriptions, with a goal of achieving our targeted payout ratio, subject to the review and approval of regulators where applicable. This makes it important for us to accurately estimate our costs and to promptly implement pricing adjustments, which generally roll onto our book of insured pets over the succeeding twelve months following any applicable regulatory approval. As a result, we may have timing mismatches during which our pricing does not reflect our current expense profile. In periods of rapid increases in veterinary invoice expenses, including periods of significant inflation, this timing mismatch may have a significant impact on our margin profile.

Timing of initiatives. Over time, we plan to implement new initiatives to improve our member experience, make modifications to our subscription plan, introduce new coverage plans, pursue pet food or other adjacent opportunities, improve our technology, increase the number of veterinary hospitals using our patented direct pay software, and find other ways to maintain a strong value proposition for our members. The implementation of such initiatives could impact our expense profile and result in us incurring expenses that may not always directly coincide with revenue increases, resulting in fluctuations in revenue and profitability in our subscription business segment.

Mix of sales. The relative mix of our business by geography, pet age, species, breed, and other factors impacts the monthly average revenue per pet we receive. For example, prices from our plans could vary depending on the relative cost of veterinary care in different countries or areas or whether the pet is a dog or a cat. As our mix of business between products and geographies changes, our metrics, such as our monthly average revenue per pet, and our exposure to foreign exchange fluctuations will be impacted. We expect our international business, additional product offerings and "Powered by Trupanion" plans to grow and, in turn, we expect these effects to increase.

Other business segment. Our other business segment primarily includes other product offerings that have been, materially different from those in our subscription business segment. We expect this difference to continue. In addition, we expect the growth rate of this segment to be materially different from our subscription business segment. We do not undertake marketing efforts for and are not the primary interface with the customers of the third parties for whom we write other business segment policies. Our relationships in our other business segment are generally subject to termination provisions and are non-exclusive. Accordingly, we have limited influence on the volume of business of this segment. Loss of an entire program via contract termination could result in the associated policies and revenue being lost over a period of 12 to 18 months, which could have a material impact on our results of operations. In some cases, we have structured exclusive relationships, but those relationships have been and may continue to be subject to limitations on the number of enrolled pets as to which we will write policies for the third party. We may enter into additional relationships in this segment in the future, if we believe they will be beneficial, which could impact our operating results.

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Results of Operations

The following tables set forth our results of operations for the periods presented both in absolute dollars and as a percentage of total revenue for those periods. The period-to-period comparison of financial results is not necessarily indicative of future results.

(1) Includes stock-based compensation expense as follows:

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Comparison of the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022, and 2021

Revenue

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. Total revenue increased by $203.4 million, or 22%, to $1,108.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. Revenue from our subscription business segment increased by $116.3 million, or 19%, to $712.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. This increase was primarily driven by a 17% increase in total subscription pet months (the sum of pets enrolled for each month during a period) for policies underwritten by Trupanion and a 2% increase in monthly average revenue per pet. Revenue from our other business segment increased by $87.1 million to $395.7 million, or 28%, for the year ended December 31, 2023. This increase was primarily driven by a 24% increase in pet months and a 5% increase in monthly average revenue per pet in this segment.

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Cost of Revenue

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. Total cost of revenue for our subscription business segment increased $116.0 million, or 23%, to $613.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2023.

This increase was driven by a $106.3 million, or 24%, increase in veterinary invoice expense and a $9.7 million, or 16%, increase in other cost of revenue. The 24% increase in veterinary invoice expense was driven by a 17% increase in total subscription pet months for policies underwritten by Trupanion and a 7% increase in veterinary invoice expense per pet. The 16% increase in other cost of revenue was primarily driven by general increases in costs attributable to growth in our membership, in line with revenue growth in this segment. Subscription business cost of revenue increased from 83% to 86% of revenue year-over-year.

Total cost of revenue for our other business segment increased by $78.6 million, or 28%, to $363.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. The increase was primarily driven by a $75.0 million, or 35%, increase in veterinary invoice expense and a $3.6 million, or 5%, increase in other cost of revenue. The 35% increase in veterinary invoice expense was primarily driven by a 24% increase in pet months in this segment and a 9% increase in veterinary invoice expense per pet. The 5% increase in other cost of revenue was primarily driven by general increases in premium-based expenses. Cost of revenue for the other business segment remained at a constant 92% of revenue year-over-year.

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Technology and Development Expenses

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. Technology and development expenses decreased by $3.7 million, or 15%, to $21.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. This decrease was primarily due to a decrease of $5.0 million in development expense as several initiatives that were pre-revenue in the prior year were launched and have begun generating revenue. Expenses associated with these initiatives are now recorded within the income statement based on the underlying nature of the expense. This decrease was partially offset by a $1.1 million increase in general compensation and other employee-related expenses and a $0.9 million increase in IT system hosting expenses. Technology and development expenses decreased from 3% to 2% of total revenue year over year

General and Administrative Expenses

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. General and administrative expenses increased by $20.8 million, or 53%, to $60.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. The increase in expense was primarily due to a $4.8 million increase in stock-based compensation related to charges after certain executive departures and a $3.8 million increase related to the negotiated settlement of uncollected premiums in connection with the transition of underwriting a third-party business to other insurers. Additionally, there was a $6.4 million increase in general compensation and other employee-related expenses, a $2.2 million increase in professional services and consulting expenses, a $1.4 million increase in year-over-year expenses related to a full year of Smart Paws and Pet Expert operations in 2023, and a $0.9 million increase in licensing and regulatory fees. General and administrative expenses increased from 4% to 5% of total revenue year over year, partially due to certain non-recurring expenses.

New Pet Acquisition Expense

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. New pet acquisition expense decreased by $12.1 million, or 14%, to $77.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. This decrease was attributable to a decrease in expenses to generate leads and conversion, as we focused on growth in our more efficient channels. New pet acquisition expense as a percentage of revenue was 7% for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to 10% in the same period last year, as we were able to stay disciplined with our discretionary pet acquisition spend, while still managing to grow total enrolled subscription pets, excluding those related to managing general agent policies, by 13%.

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Depreciation and Amortization

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. Depreciation and amortization expense increased by $1.6 million, or 14%, to $12.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 primarily driven by the amortization of acquired intangibles.

Total Other Expense (Income), Net

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. Total other expense (income), net increased by $3.2 million to $4.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 primarily due to an increase in interest expense incurred on the Credit Facility, which was partially offset by an increase in interest earned on our investment portfolio.

Stock-Based Compensation

Year ended December 31, 2023 compared to year ended December 31, 2022. Stock-based compensation is included in the cost and expense line items in the consolidated statements of operations, discussed above. Stock-based compensation expense in total was $33.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, down from $33.4 million in the prior year period. The amount of stock-based compensation recognized largely reflects the timing and vesting of our annual performance grants, calculated according to our equity incentive plan.

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Quarterly Results of Operations

The following tables contain selected quarterly financial information for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022. The unaudited quarterly information has been prepared on a basis consistent with the audited consolidated financial statements and includes all adjustments that we consider necessary for a fair presentation of the information shown. These quarterly operating results for any fiscal quarter are not necessarily indicative of the operating results for any full fiscal year or future period.

(1) Includes stock-based compensation expense as follows (in thousands):

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Liquidity and Capital Resources

The following table summarizes our cash flows for the periods indicated (in thousands):

Our primary requirements for liquidity are paying veterinary invoices, funding operations and capital requirements, investing in new member acquisition, investing in enhancements to our member experience, and servicing debt. We have certain contractual obligations in the normal course of business, including obligations and commitments relating to our Credit Facility, non-cancellable vendor purchase agreements, as well as future payments of veterinary invoices. Refer to Note 10, Reserve for Veterinary Invoices, included in Item 8 of Part II of this 10-K, for further details on anticipated cash outflows.

Most recently, our primary sources of liquidity have been cash provided by operations and available borrowings from our Credit Facility. We believe these sources are sufficient to fund our operations and capital requirements for the next 12 months. As we continue to grow and consider strategic opportunities, however, we may explore additional financing to fund our operations and growth or to meet capital requirements. Financing could include equity, equity-linked, or debt financing. Additional financing may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all. As our capital surplus grows relative to the rate of growth of our business, we may also generate cash, via dividends or other methods, from one or more of our underwriting entities.

As of December 31, 2023, we had $277.2 million in cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, of which $230.6 million was held by our insurance entities. Outside of insurance entities, we held $46.6 million in cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments with an additional $15.0 million available under our Credit Facility. Our insurance entities maintained $241.3 million of capital surplus, which was $64.1 million in excess of the estimated risk-based capital requirement of $177.2 million. The ability to distribute any portion of this estimated $64.1 million excess to our parent company, and the timing of any distribution, may be subject to regulatory limitations.

In April 2021, our board of directors approved a share repurchase program, pursuant to which we may, between May 2021 and May 2026, repurchase outstanding shares of our common stock. While our board of directors has approved the program, any repurchase activity is subject to quarterly assessment and board approval, based on various factors including available cash, our stock price relative to our estimated intrinsic value, forecasted operating results, and available opportunities to deploy capital. We repurchased no shares under this program during the year ended December 31, 2023.

Operating Cash Flows

Net cash provided by operating activities was $18.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to $8.0 million net cash used by operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2022. This increase was primarily driven by an increase in cash collections from members, a decrease in acquisition costs, and timing differences in other working capital activities. Cash increases from working-capital were primarily driven by an increase in our reserve for veterinary invoices. Changes in accounts receivable and deferred revenue were primarily related to annual policies with monthly payment terms within our other business segment.

Investing Cash Flows

Net cash provided by investing activities was $7.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily consisting of $24.3 million in sales and maturities of investment securities, net of purchases, offset by $18.3 million of capital expenditures primarily related to the development of internal-use software focused on member experience, claims processing, and internal policy management improvements. Net cash used by investing activities was $67.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2022, primarily consisting of $33.8 million in purchases of investment securities, net of sales and maturities, $17.1 million of capital expenditures primarily related to the development of internal-use software, and $15.0 million in net cash paid for business acquisitions.

Financing Cash Flows

Net cash provided by financing activities was $59.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily consisting of $60.1 million in proceeds from the Credit Facility, partially offset by $1.7 million in repayments on the Credit Facility. Net cash provided by financing activities was $60.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2022, primarily consisting of $69.1 million in proceeds from the Credit Facility, partially offset by $5.8 million in repurchases of common stock.

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Long-Term Debt

Our Credit Facility provides us with up to $150.0 million of credit. As of December 31, 2023, we issued term loans totaling $135.0 million under the Credit Facility. The Credit Facility is secured by substantially all of our assets and those of our subsidiaries. Refer to Note 11, Debt, included in Item 8 of this report, for further details.

Regulation

As of December 31, 2023, our insurance entities collectively held $101.0 million in cash and cash equivalents, to be used for operating expenses of our insurance entities, $129.6 million in short-term investments and $268.0 million in other current assets. Most of the assets in our insurance entities are subject to certain capital and dividend rules and regulations prescribed by jurisdictions in which they are authorized to operate.

American Pet Insurance Company (APIC)

The majority of our investments are held by our insurance entities to satisfy risk-based capital requirements of the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC). The NAIC requirements provide a method for analyzing the minimum amount of risk-based capital (statutory capital and surplus plus other adjustments) appropriate for an insurance company to support its overall business operations, taking into account the risk characteristics of the company’s assets, liabilities and certain other items. An insurance company found to have insufficient statutory capital based on its risk-based capital ratio may be subject to varying levels of additional regulatory oversight depending on the level of capital inadequacy. APIC must hold certain capital amounts in order to comply with the statutory regulations and, therefore, we cannot use these amounts for general operating purposes without regulatory approval. As our business grows, the amount of capital we are required to maintain to satisfy our risk-based capital requirements also generally will increase, though risk-based capital requirements also take our overall rate of growth into consideration. Recently, our other business segment growth has slowed and, currently, we expect that to continue, which would reduce our capital requirements. APIC was required to maintain at least $137.6 million and $142.4 million of risk-based capital as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. APIC maintained $199.6 million and $162.2 million of risk-based capital surplus as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. The increase of capital surplus at APIC during the year was primarily due to retained earnings from APIC's underwriting profit and a capital contribution of $3.8 million, partially offset by an ordinary dividend of $7.6 million distributed to the parent entity in December 2023.

ZPIC Insurance Company (ZPIC), QPIC Insurance Company (QPIC), and GPIC Insurance Company (GPIC)

In 2021, we established two new wholly-owned insurance subsidiaries, ZPIC and QPIC, domiciled in Missouri and Nebraska, respectively, and in 2023 we established a new wholly-owned insurance subsidiary, GPIC, domiciled in Canada. We have funded required statutory capital to each of these new subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2023, neither ZPIC, QPIC nor GPIC have begun underwriting any insurance policies, accordingly, each of these entities are currently overcapitalized relative to traditional risk-based capital requirements. We formed these insurance subsidiaries to provide us flexibility as to the insurance entity we use to market and write policies.

Wyndham Insurance Company (SAC) Limited (WICL) Segregated Account AX

WICL Segregated Account AX was established by WICL, with Trupanion, Inc. as the shareholder, to enter into a reinsurance agreement with Omega General Insurance Company. All of the assets and liabilities of WICL Segregated Account AX are legally segregated from other assets and liabilities within WICL, and all shares of the segregated account are owned by Trupanion, Inc. In February 2023, our parent entity received a dividend of $7.3 million from WICL Segregated Account AX as allowed under our agreements with WICL. As required by the Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions regulations related to our reinsurance agreement with Omega General Insurance Company, we are required to maintain a Canadian Trust account with the greater of CAD $2.0 million or 120% of unearned Canadian premium plus 20% of outstanding Canadian claims, including all incurred but not reported claims. As of December 31, 2023, the account held CAD $15.7 million.

Though we are not directly regulated by the Bermuda Monetary Authority (BMA), WICL's regulation and compliance impacts us as it could have an adverse impact on the ability of WICL Segregated Account AX to pay dividends. WICL is regulated by the BMA under the Insurance Act of 1978 (Insurance Act) and the Segregated Accounts Company Act of 2000. The Insurance Act imposes on Bermuda insurance companies, solvency and liquidity standards, certain restrictions on the declaration and payment of dividends and distributions, certain restrictions on the reduction of statutory capital, and auditing and reporting requirements, and grants the BMA powers to supervise and, in certain circumstances, to investigate and intervene in the affairs of insurance companies. Under the Insurance Act, WICL, as a class 3 insurer, is required to maintain available statutory capital and surplus at a level equal to or in excess of a prescribed minimum established by reference to net written premiums and loss reserves.

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Under the Bermuda Companies Act 1981, as amended, a Bermuda company may not declare or pay a dividend or make a distribution out of contributed surplus if there are reasonable grounds for believing that: (a) the company is, or would after the payment be, unable to pay its liabilities as they become due; or (b) the realizable value of the company’s assets would thereby be less than its liabilities. The Segregated Accounts Company Act of 2000 further requires that dividends out of a segregated account can only be paid to the extent that the cell remains solvent and the value of its assets remain greater than the aggregate of its liabilities and its issued share capital and share premium accounts.

Critical Accounting Policies and Significant Estimates

Our discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based upon our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with GAAP. The preparation of these consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities as of the date of the consolidated financial statements, as well as the reported revenue and expenses during the reporting periods.

Critical accounting policies and estimates are those that we consider the most important to the portrayal of our financial condition and results of operations because they require our most difficult, subjective or complex judgments, often as a result of the need to make estimates about the effect of matters that are inherently uncertain. Generally, we base our estimates on historical experience and on various other factors that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Actual results may differ from these estimates.

Reserve for Veterinary Invoices

We use the chain-ladder method and other actuarial methods to estimate reserves for veterinary invoices for our subscription business and for the majority of our other business segment. Paid loss development factors are estimated based on historical paid loss triangles. The reserve represents our estimate of the future amount we will pay for veterinary invoices that are dated as of, or prior to, our balance sheet date. The reserve also includes our estimate of related internal processing costs. To determine the accrual, we make assumptions based on our historical experience, including the number of veterinary invoices we expect to receive, the average cost of those veterinary invoices, the length of time between the date of the veterinary invoice and the date we receive it, and our expected cost to process and administer the payments. As of each balance sheet date, we reevaluate our reserve and adjust the estimate for new information.

As of December 31, 2023, our reserve for veterinary invoices was $63.2 million, consisting of $61.0 million for the amount we expect to pay in the future for veterinary invoices dated between January 1, 2023 and December 31, 2023, inclusive of related processing costs, and a reserve of $2.2 million for invoices dated prior to January 1, 2023. We believe the reserve amount as of December 31, 2023 is adequate, and we do not believe that there are any reasonably likely changes in the facts or circumstances underlying key assumptions that would result in the reserve balance being insufficient in an amount that would have a material impact on our reported results, financial position or liquidity. The ultimate liability, however, may be in excess of or less than the amount we have reserved.

For the year ended December 31, 2023, we paid $44.7 million for veterinary invoices dated on or before December 31, 2022, including related processing costs. Our reserve estimate for these expenses was $43.7 million as of December 31, 2022. As of December 31, 2023, we had unfavorable development on veterinary invoice reserves of $3.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2022.

Income Taxes

We determine our deferred tax assets and liabilities based on the differences between the financial reporting and tax basis of assets and liabilities. The deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using the enacted tax rates that will be in effect when the differences are expected to reverse. A valuation allowance is recorded when it is more likely than not that the deferred tax asset will not be recovered. We apply judgment in the determination of the consolidated financial statement recognition and measurement of a tax position taken or expected to be taken in a tax return. Although we believe our assumptions, judgments and estimates are reasonable, changes in tax laws or our interpretation of tax laws and the resolution of any tax audits could significantly impact the amounts provided for income taxes in our consolidated financial statements.

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