Tesla, Inc. (TSLA)

ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For further discussion of our products and services, technology and competitive strengths, refer to Item 1- Business. For discussion related to changes in financial condition and the results of operations for fiscal year 2023-related items, refer to Part II, Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for fiscal year 2023, which was filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on January 29, 2024.

Overview and 2024 Highlights

Our mission is to accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy. We design, develop, manufacture, lease and sell high-performance fully electric vehicles, solar energy generation systems and energy storage products. We also offer maintenance, installation, operation, charging, insurance, financial and other services related to our products. Additionally, we are increasingly focused on products and services based on AI, robotics and automation.

In 2024, we produced approximately 1,773,000 consumer vehicles and delivered approximately 1,789,000 consumer vehicles. We are focused on profitable growth, including by leveraging existing factories and production lines to introduce new and more affordable products, further improving and deploying our FSD (Supervised) capabilities, including future autonomous capabilities through our purpose-built Robotaxi product, Cybercab, reducing costs, increasing vehicle production, utilized capacity and delivery capabilities, improving and developing our vehicles and battery technologies, vertically integrating and localizing our supply chain, and expanding our global infrastructure, including our service and charging infrastructure.

In 2024, we deployed 31.4 GWh of energy storage products. We are focused on ramping the production and increasing the market penetration of our energy storage products.

In 2024, we recognized total revenues of $97.69 billion, representing an increase of $917 million compared to the prior year. In 2024, our net income attributable to common stockholders was $7.09 billion, representing a decrease of $7.91 billion compared to the prior year, primarily due to the impact of releasing $6.54 billion of our valuation allowance associated with U.S. federal and state deferred tax assets in the fourth quarter of 2023.We continue to ramp production and build and optimize our manufacturing capacity, expand our operations while focusing on further cost reductions and operational efficiencies to enable increased deliveries and deployments of our products, and invest in research and development to accelerate our AI, software, and fleet-based profits for further revenue growth.

We ended 2024 with $36.56 billion in cash and cash equivalents and investments, representing an increase of $7.47 billion from the end of 2023. Our cash flows provided by operating activities were $14.92 billion in 2024 compared to $13.26 billion in 2023, representing an increase of $1.67 billion. Capital expenditures amounted to $11.34 billion in 2024 compared to $8.90 billion in 2023, representing an increase of $2.44 billion. Overall growth has allowed our business to generally fund itself, and we will continue investing in a number of capital-intensive projects and research and development in upcoming periods.

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Management Opportunities, Challenges and Uncertainties and 2025 Outlook

Automotive—Production

The following is a summary of the status of production of each of our announced vehicle models in production and under development, as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K:

We are focused on growing our manufacturing capacity, which includes capacity for manufacturing newer vehicle models such as our Cybertruck, Tesla Semi and future vehicles utilizing aspects of our next generation platform, and ramping the production at our Gigafactories to their installed production capacities as well as increasing production rate and efficiency at our current factories. The next phase of production growth will depend on the continued ramp at our factories and be initiated by advances in autonomy and the introduction of new products, including those built on our next generation vehicle platform, as well as our ability to add to our available sources of battery cell supply by manufacturing our own cells that we are developing to have high-volume output, lower capital and production costs and longer range. Our goals are to improve vehicle performance, decrease production costs and increase affordability and customer awareness.

These plans are subject to uncertainties inherent in establishing and ramping manufacturing operations, which may be exacerbated by new product and manufacturing technologies we introduce, the number of concurrent international projects, any industry-wide component constraints, labor shortages and any future impact from events outside of our control. For example, during the first quarter of 2024, we experienced a sequential decline in production volumes partially caused by the early phase of the production ramp of the updated Model 3 at our Fremont factory, and factory shutdowns at Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg resulting from shipping diversions caused by the Red Sea conflict and an arson attack. In the first quarter of 2025, as we launch our New Model Y worldwide, we may similarly experience delays or declines in production volumes due to simultaneous manufacturing ramps in facilities on three continents. Moreover, we have set ambitious technological targets with our plans for battery cells as well as for iterative manufacturing and design improvements for our vehicles with each new factory.

Automotive—Demand, Sales, Deliveries and Infrastructure

Our cost reduction efforts, cost innovation strategies, and additional localized procurement and manufacturing are key to our vehicles’ affordability and have allowed us to competitively price our vehicles. We will also continue to generate demand by improving our vehicles’ performance and functionality, including through product offerings and features based on artificial intelligence such as Autopilot, FSD (Supervised), and other software, and delivering new vehicles and vehicle options, such as our launch of the updated Model 3 in 2024, and the New Model Y in the first quarter of 2025. In addition, we have been increasing awareness, and expanding our vehicle financing programs, including attractive leasing terms for our customers.

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However, we operate in a cyclical industry that is sensitive to shifting consumer trends, political and regulatory uncertainty, including with respect to trade and the environment, all of which can be compounded by inflationary pressures, rising energy prices, interest rate fluctuations and the liquidity of enterprise customers. For example, as inflationary pressures increased across the markets in which we operate, central banks in developed countries raised interest rates rapidly and substantially, which impacted the affordability of vehicle lease and finance arrangements. Further, sales of vehicles in the automotive industry also tend to be cyclical in many markets, which may expose us to increased volatility as we expand and adjust our operations. Moreover, as additional competitors enter the marketplace and help bring the world closer to sustainable transportation, we will have to adjust and continue to execute well to maintain our momentum. Additionally, our suppliers’ liquidity and allocation plans may be affected by current challenges in the North American automotive industry, which could reduce our access to components or result in unfavorable changes to cost. These macroeconomic and industry trends have had, and will likely continue to have, an impact on the pricing of, and order rate for our vehicles, and in turn our operating margin. Changes in government and economic policies, incentives or tariffs may also impact our production, sales, cost structure and the competitive landscape. We will continue to adjust accordingly to such developments, and we believe our ongoing cost reduction, including improved production innovation and efficiency at our newest factories and lower logistics costs, and focus on operating leverage will continue to benefit us in relation to our competitors, while our new products will help enable future growth.

As our production increases, we must work constantly to similarly increase vehicle delivery capability so that it does not become a bottleneck on our total deliveries. We are also committed to reducing the percentage of vehicles delivered in the third month of each quarter, which will help to reduce the cost per vehicle. As we expand our manufacturing operations globally, we will also have to continue to increase and staff our delivery, servicing and charging infrastructure accordingly, maintain our vehicle reliability and optimize our Supercharger locations to ensure cost effectiveness and customer satisfaction. In particular, as other automotive manufacturers have announced their adoption of the North American Charging Standard (“NACS”) and agreements with us to utilize our Superchargers, we must correspondingly expand our network in order to ensure adequate availability to meet customer demands. We also remain focused on continued enhancements of the capability and efficiency of our servicing operations.

Energy Generation and Storage Demand, Production and Deployment

The long-term success of this business is dependent upon incremental volume growth. We continue to increase the production and capabilities of our energy storage products to meet high levels of demand, including the introduction of Powerwall 3 in 2024, and the ramps of our Megafactories in Shanghai and Lathrop, California. For Megapack, energy storage deployments can vary meaningfully quarter to quarter depending on the timing of specific project milestones and logistics. As these product lines grow, we will have to maintain adequate battery cell supply for our energy storage products. At the same time, changes in government and economic incentives or tariffs may also impact our sales, cost structure and the competitive landscape.

Cash Flow and Capital Expenditure Trends

Our capital expenditures are typically difficult to project beyond the short-term given the number and breadth of our core projects at any given time, and may further be impacted by uncertainties in future global market conditions. We are simultaneously developing and ramping new products, building or ramping manufacturing facilities on three continents, piloting the development and manufacture of new battery cell technologies, expanding our Supercharger network and investing in autonomy and other artificial intelligence enabled training and products, and the pace of our capital spend may vary depending on overall priority among projects, the pace at which we meet milestones, production adjustments to and among our various products, increased capital efficiencies and the addition of new projects. Owing and subject to the foregoing as well as the pipeline of announced projects under development, all other continuing infrastructure growth and varying levels of inflation, we currently expect our capital expenditures to exceed $11.00 billion in 2025 and in each of the following two fiscal years.

Our business has generally been consistently generating cash flow from operations in excess of our level of capital spend, and with better working capital management resulting in shorter days sales outstanding than days payable outstanding, our sales growth is also generally facilitating positive cash generation. We have and will continue to utilize such cash flows, among other things, to invest in autonomy, do more vertical integration, expand our product roadmap and provide financing options to our customers. At the same time, we are likely to see heightened levels of capital expenditures during certain periods depending on the specific pace of our capital-intensive projects and other potential variables such as rising material prices and increases in supply chain and labor expenses resulting from changes in global trade conditions and labor availability. Overall, we expect our ability to be self-funding to continue as long as macroeconomic factors support current trends in our sales.

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Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

The consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. (“GAAP”). The preparation of the consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues, costs and expenses and related disclosures. We base our estimates on historical experience, as appropriate, and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Changes in the accounting estimates are reasonably likely to occur from period to period. Accordingly, actual results could differ significantly from the estimates made by our management. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. To the extent that there are material differences between these estimates and actual results, our future financial statement presentation, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows may be affected.

The estimates used for, but not limited to, determining significant economic incentive for resale value guarantee arrangements, sales return reserves, resale value guarantee liabilities, income tax, the collectability of accounts and finance receivables, inventory valuation, warranties, fair value of long-lived assets, goodwill, fair value of financial instruments, fair value and residual value of operating lease vehicles and solar energy systems subject to leases could be impacted. We have assessed the impact and are not aware of any specific events or circumstances that required an update to our estimates and assumptions or materially affected the carrying value of our assets or liabilities as of the date of issuance of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. These estimates may change as new events occur and additional information is obtained. Actual results could differ materially from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

Revenue Recognition

Automotive Sales

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to cash and financing deliveries of new vehicles, and specific other features and services that meet the definition of a performance obligation under Accounting Standards Codification 606, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (“ASC 606”), including access to our FSD (Supervised) features and their ongoing maintenance, internet connectivity, free Supercharging programs and over-the-air software updates. We recognize revenue on automotive sales upon delivery to the customer, which is when the control of a vehicle transfers. Payments are typically received at the point control transfers or in accordance with payment terms customary to the business, except sales we finance for which payments are collected over the contractual loan term. We also recognize a sales return reserve based on historical experience plus consideration for expected future market values, when we offer resale value guarantees or similar buyback terms. Other features and services such as access to our internet connectivity, unlimited free Supercharging and over-the-air software updates are provisioned upon control transfer of a vehicle and recognized over time on a straight-line basis as we have a stand-ready obligation to deliver such services to the customer. Other limited free Supercharging incentives are recognized based on actual usage or expiration, whichever is earlier. We recognize revenue related to these other features and services over the performance period, which is generally the expected ownership life of the vehicle. Revenue related to FSD (Supervised) features is recognized when functionality is delivered to the customer and their ongoing maintenance is recognized over time. For our obligations related to automotive sales, we estimate standalone selling price by considering costs used to develop and deliver the service, third-party pricing of similar options and other information that may be available.

Inventory Valuation

Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Cost is computed using standard cost for vehicles and energy products, which approximates actual cost on a first-in, first-out basis. We record inventory write-downs for excess or obsolete inventories based upon assumptions about current and future demand forecasts. If our inventory on-hand is in excess of our future demand forecast, the excess amounts are written-off.

We also review our inventory to determine whether its carrying value exceeds the net amount realizable upon the ultimate sale of the inventory. This requires us to determine the estimated selling price of our vehicles less the estimated cost to convert the inventory on-hand into a finished product. Once inventory is written-down, a new, lower cost basis for that inventory is established and subsequent changes in facts and circumstances do not result in the restoration or increase in that newly established cost basis.

Should our estimates of future selling prices or production costs change, additional and potentially material write-downs may be required. A small change in our estimates may result in a material charge to our reported financial results.

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Warranties

We provide a manufacturer’s warranty on all new and used vehicles and a warranty on the installation and components of the energy generation and storage systems we sell for periods typically between 10 to 25 years. We accrue a warranty reserve for the products sold by us, which includes our best estimate of the projected costs to repair or replace items under warranties and recalls if identified. These estimates are based on actual claims incurred to date and an estimate of the nature, frequency and costs of future claims. These estimates are inherently uncertain and changes to our historical or projected warranty experience may cause material changes to the warranty reserve in the future. The warranty reserve does not include projected warranty costs associated with our vehicles subject to operating lease accounting and our solar energy systems under lease contracts or PPAs, as the costs to repair these warranty claims are expensed as incurred. The portion of the warranty reserve expected to be incurred within the next 12 months is included within Accrued liabilities and other, while the remaining balance is included within Other long-term liabilities on the consolidated balance sheets. For liabilities that we are entitled to receive indemnification from our suppliers, we record receivables for the contractually obligated amounts on the consolidated balance sheets as a component of Prepaid expenses and other current assets for the current portion and as Other non-current assets for the long-term portion. Warranty expense is recorded as a component of Cost of revenues in the consolidated statements of operations. Due to the magnitude of our automotive business, our accrued warranty balance is primarily related to our automotive segment.

Stock-Based Compensation

We use the fair value method of accounting for our stock options and restricted stock units (“RSUs”) granted to employees and for our employee stock purchase plan (the “ESPP”) to measure the cost of employee services received in exchange for the stock-based awards. The fair value of stock option awards with only service and/or performance conditions is estimated on the grant or offering date using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The Black-Scholes option-pricing model requires inputs such as the risk-free interest rate, expected term and expected volatility. These inputs are subjective and generally require significant judgment. The fair value of RSUs is measured on the grant date based on the closing fair market value of our common stock. The resulting cost is recognized over the period during which an employee is required to provide service in exchange for the awards, usually the vesting period, which is generally four years for stock options and RSUs and six months for the ESPP. Stock-based compensation expense is recognized on a straight-line basis, net of actual forfeitures in the period.

For performance-based awards, stock-based compensation expense is recognized over the expected performance achievement period of individual performance milestones when the achievement of each individual performance milestone becomes probable.

As we accumulate additional employee stock-based awards data over time and as we incorporate market data related to our common stock, we may calculate significantly different volatilities and expected lives, which could materially impact the valuation of our stock-based awards and the stock-based compensation expense that we will recognize in future periods. Stock-based compensation expense is recorded in Cost of revenues, Research and development expense and Selling, general and administrative expense in the consolidated statements of operations.

Income Taxes

We are subject to income taxes in the U.S. and in many foreign jurisdictions. Significant judgment is required in determining our provision for income taxes, our deferred tax assets and liabilities and any valuation allowance recorded against our net deferred tax assets that are not more likely than not to be realized. We monitor the realizability of our deferred tax assets taking into account all relevant factors at each reporting period. In completing our assessment of realizability of our deferred tax assets, we consider our history of income (loss) measured at pre-tax income (loss) adjusted for permanent book-tax differences on a jurisdictional basis, volatility in actual earnings, excess tax benefits related to stock-based compensation in recent prior years, and impacts of the timing of reversal of existing temporary differences. We also rely on our assessment of the Company’s projected future results of business operations, including uncertainty in future operating results relative to historical results, volatility in the market price of our common stock and its performance over time, variable macroeconomic conditions impacting our ability to forecast future taxable income, and changes in business that may affect the existence and magnitude of future taxable income. Our valuation allowance assessment is based on our best estimate of future results considering all available information.

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Furthermore, significant judgment is required in evaluating our tax positions. In the ordinary course of business, there are many transactions and calculations for which the ultimate tax settlement is uncertain. As a result, we recognize the effect of this uncertainty on our tax attributes or taxes payable based on our estimates of the eventual outcome. These effects are recognized when, despite our belief that our tax return positions are supportable, we believe that it is more likely than not that some of those positions may not be fully sustained upon review by tax authorities. We are required to file income tax returns in the U.S. and various foreign jurisdictions, which requires us to interpret the applicable tax laws and regulations in effect in such jurisdictions. Such returns are subject to audit by the various federal, state and foreign taxing authorities, who may disagree with respect to our tax positions. We believe that our consideration is adequate for all open audit years based on our assessment of many factors, including past experience and interpretations of tax law. We review and update our estimates in light of changing facts and circumstances, such as the closing of a tax audit, the lapse of a statute of limitations or a change in estimate. To the extent that the final tax outcome of these matters differs from our expectations, such differences may impact income tax expense in the period in which such determination is made.

Results of Operations

Revenues

Automotive & Services and Other Segment

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to cash and financing deliveries of new vehicles, including access to our FSD (Supervised) features and their ongoing maintenance, internet connectivity, free Supercharging programs and over-the-air software updates. These deliveries are vehicles that are not subject to lease accounting.

Automotive regulatory credits includes sales of regulatory credits to other automotive manufacturers. Our revenue from automotive regulatory credits is directly related to our new vehicle production, sales and pricing negotiated with our customers. We monetize them proactively as new vehicles are sold based on standing arrangements with buyers of such credits, typically as close as possible to the production and delivery of the vehicle or changes in regulation impacting the credits.

Automotive leasing revenue includes the amortization of revenue for vehicles under direct operating lease agreements. Additionally, automotive leasing revenue includes direct sales-type leasing programs where we recognize all revenue associated with the sales-type lease upon delivery to the customer.

Services and other revenue consists of sales of used vehicles, non-warranty maintenance services and collision, part sales, paid Supercharging, insurance services revenue and retail merchandise sales.

2024 compared to 2023

Automotive sales revenue decreased $6.03 billion, or 8%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to lower average selling price on our vehicles driven by overall price reductions and attractive financing options provided in 2024 as well as mix. Additionally, there was a decrease of approximately 22,000 combined Model 3 and Model Y cash deliveries. The decreases were partially offset by an increase of approximately 19,000 deliveries of other models primarily due to our production ramp of Cybertruck. Additionally, we recognized $596 million of FSD (Supervised) revenue due to release of certain features in 2024.

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Automotive regulatory credits revenue increased $973 million, or 54%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, driven by demand for credits in North America as other automobile manufacturers scale back on their battery electric vehicle plans.

Automotive leasing revenue decreased $293 million, or 14%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to lower direct sales-type leasing deliveries as we have shifted towards providing leasing options through commercial banking partner programs that allow for us to recognize upfront revenue in automotive sales and a decrease in lease buyouts.

Services and other revenue increased $2.22 billion, or 27%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to increases in sales of used vehicles, non-warranty maintenance services and collision revenue, paid Supercharging revenue, insurance services revenue and part sales revenue.

Energy Generation and Storage Segment

Energy generation and storage revenue includes sales and leasing of solar energy generation and energy storage products, financing of solar energy generation products, services related to such products and sales of solar energy systems incentives.

2024 compared to 2023

Energy generation and storage revenue increased $4.05 billion, or 67%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to a 16.7 GWh increase in Megapack and Powerwall deployments compared to the prior year.

Cost of Revenues and Gross Margin

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Automotive & Services and Other Segment

Cost of automotive sales revenue includes direct and indirect materials, labor costs, manufacturing overhead, including depreciation costs of tooling and machinery, shipping and logistic costs, vehicle connectivity costs, FSD (Supervised) ongoing maintenance costs, allocations of electricity and infrastructure costs related to our Supercharger network and reserves for estimated warranty expenses. Cost of automotive sales revenues also includes adjustments to warranty expense and charges to write down the carrying value of our inventory when it exceeds its estimated net realizable value and to provide for obsolete and on-hand inventory in excess of forecasted demand. Additionally, cost of automotive sales revenue benefits from manufacturing credits earned.

Cost of automotive leasing revenue includes the depreciation of operating lease vehicles, cost of goods sold associated with direct sales-type leases and warranty expense related to leased vehicles.

Costs of services and other revenue includes cost of used vehicles including refurbishment costs, costs associated with providing non-warranty after-sales services, costs associated with our body shops and part sales, costs of paid Supercharging, costs to provide vehicle insurance and costs of retail merchandise sales.

2024 compared to 2023

Cost of automotive sales revenue decreased $3.25 billion, or 5%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023 due to a decrease in the average combined cost per unit of our vehicles primarily from lower raw material costs, freight and duties as well as mix, in addition to the volume changes in deliveries year over year as discussed above. The decreases were partially offset by higher costs for Cybertruck.

Cost of automotive leasing revenue decreased $265 million, or 21%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to a decrease in direct sales-type leasing cost of revenue driven by lower deliveries and a decrease in our direct operating lease cost of revenue driven by lower lease buyouts compared to the prior periods.

Cost of services and other revenue increased $2.09 billion, or 27%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to volume increases in used vehicle sales at lower average vehicle acquisition cost, insurance services, paid Supercharging, part sales and non-warranty maintenance services and collision.

Gross margin for total automotive decreased from 19.4% to 18.4% in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023 due to lower average selling price on our vehicles and Cybertruck ramp, partially offset by lower average combined cost per unit of our vehicles and increases in regulatory credit and FSD (Supervised) revenue, as discussed above.

Gross margin for total automotive & services and other segment decreased from 18.2% to 16.9% in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The changes in gross margin are primarily due to the automotive gross margin factors discussed above.

Energy Generation and Storage Segment

Cost of energy generation and storage revenue includes direct and indirect material and labor costs, manufacturing overhead, including depreciation costs of tooling and machinery, freight, warranty expense, and cost of servicing. Cost of energy generation and storage revenue also includes charges to write down the carrying value of our inventory when it exceeds its estimated net realizable value and to provide for obsolete and on-hand inventory in excess of forecasted demand. Additionally, cost of energy generation and storage revenue benefits from manufacturing credits earned. In agreements for solar energy systems and PPAs where we are the lessor, the cost of revenue is primarily comprised of depreciation of the cost of leased solar energy systems, maintenance costs associated with those systems and amortization of any initial direct costs.

2024 compared to 2023

Cost of energy generation and storage revenue increased $2.55 billion, or 52%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to increases in Megapack and Powerwall deployments, partially offset by increases in IRA manufacturing credits recognized as compared to the prior year.

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Gross margin for energy generation and storage increased from 18.9% to 26.2% in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to margin improvements for our energy storage products driven by cost reductions, including benefits from IRA manufacturing credits, and a higher proportion of our storage business, which operated at a higher gross margin, within the segment as compared to the prior periods.

Research and Development Expense

Research and development (“R&D”) expenses consist primarily of personnel costs for our teams in engineering and research, manufacturing engineering and manufacturing test organizations, prototyping expense, contract and professional services and amortized equipment expense.

R&D expenses increased $571 million, or 14%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The overall increases were primarily driven by additional costs year over year related to AI programs. R&D expenses as a percentage of revenue increased from 4% to 5% in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023 as we continue to expand our product roadmap and technologies.

Selling, General and Administrative Expense

Selling, general and administrative (“SG&A”) expenses generally consist of personnel and facilities costs related to our stores, marketing, sales, executive, finance, human resources, information technology and legal organizations, as well as fees for professional and contract services and litigation settlements.

SG&A expenses increased $350 million, or 7%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023 driven by a $171 million increase in facilities related expenses, a $115 million increase in employee and labor costs, including professional services and a $57 million increase in marketing expenses.

Restructuring and Other

In the second quarter of 2024, we initiated and substantially completed certain restructuring actions to reduce costs and improve efficiency. As a result, we recognized $583 million of employee termination expenses in Restructuring and other in our consolidated income statement. These expenses were substantially paid with an immaterial accrual remaining in Accrued liabilities and other in our consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2024.

Interest Income

Interest income increased $503 million, or 47%, in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023, primarily due to higher interest earned on our cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments compared to the prior year due to an increase in our portfolio balance and a higher weighted average interest rate.

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Other Income (Expense), Net

Other income (expense), net, consists of foreign exchange gains and losses related to our foreign currency-denominated monetary assets and liabilities and fair value remeasurements of our digital assets following the adoption of ASU 2023-08 effective January 1, 2024. See Note 2, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details.

Other income (expense), net, changed favorably by $523 million in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023 primarily due to remeasurement of our bitcoin digital assets to fair value in 2024 (see above), partially offset by unfavorable fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates on our intercompany balances. As our intercompany balances are significant in nature and we do not typically hedge foreign currency risk, we can experience significant fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rate gains and losses from period to period.

Provision for (Benefit from) Income Taxes

Our provision for (benefit from) income taxes changed by $6.84 billion in the year ended December 31, 2024 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. Our effective tax rate changed to an expense of 20% in the year ended December 31, 2024 from a benefit of 50% in the year ended December 31, 2023. These changes are primarily due to the impact of releasing the valuation allowance on our U.S. deferred tax assets in the fourth quarter of 2023.

We monitor the realizability of our deferred tax assets taking into account all relevant factors at each reporting period. In the fourth quarter of 2023, based on the relevant weight of positive and negative evidence, including the amount of our taxable income in recent years which was objective and verifiable, and consideration of our expected future taxable earnings, we concluded that it is more likely than not that most of our U.S. federal and certain state deferred tax assets are realizable and released $6.54 billion of our valuation allowance. As of December 31, 2024, we continue to conclude that it is more likely than not that our deferred tax assets are realizable, except for our California deferred tax assets, U.S. foreign tax credits and certain foreign operating losses.

See Note 13, Income Taxes, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

We expect to continue to generate net positive operating cash flow. The cash we generate from our core operations enables us to fund ongoing operations and production, our research and development projects for new products and technologies including our proprietary battery cells, additional manufacturing ramps at existing manufacturing facilities, the construction of future factories, and the continued expansion of our retail and service locations, body shops, Mobile Service fleet, Supercharger, including to support NACS, energy product installation capabilities and autonomy and other artificial intelligence enabled products.

In addition, because a large portion of our future expenditures will be to fund our growth, we expect that if needed we will be able to adjust our capital and operating expenditures by operating segment. For example, if our near-term manufacturing operations decrease in scale or ramp more slowly than expected, including due to global economic or business conditions, we may choose to correspondingly slow the pace of our capital expenditures. Finally, we continually evaluate our cash needs and may decide it is best to raise additional capital or seek alternative financing sources to fund the rapid growth of our business, including through drawdowns on existing or new debt facilities or financing funds. Conversely, we may also from time to time determine that it is in our best interests to voluntarily repay certain indebtedness early.

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Accordingly, we believe that our current sources of funds will provide us with adequate liquidity during the 12-month period following December 31, 2024, as well as in the long-term.

See the sections below for more details regarding the material requirements for cash in our business and our sources of liquidity to meet such needs.

Material Cash Requirements

From time to time in the ordinary course of business, we enter into agreements with vendors for the purchase of components and raw materials to be used in the manufacture of our products. However, due to contractual terms, variability in the precise growth curves of our development and production ramps, and opportunities to renegotiate pricing, we generally do not have binding and enforceable purchase orders under such contracts beyond the short-term, and the timing and magnitude of purchase orders beyond such period is difficult to accurately project.

As discussed in and subject to the considerations referenced in Part II, Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Management Opportunities, Challenges and Uncertainties and 2025 Outlook—Cash Flow and Capital Expenditure Trends in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, we currently expect our capital expenditures to support our projects globally to exceed $11.00 billion in 2025 and in each of the following two fiscal years.

As of December 31, 2024, we and our subsidiaries had outstanding $7.91 billion in aggregate principal amount of indebtedness, of which $2.35 billion is current. As of December 31, 2024, our total minimum lease payments was $7.05 billion, of which $1.19 billion is due in the succeeding 12 months. For details regarding our indebtedness and lease obligations, refer to Note 10, Debt, and Note 11, Leases, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Sources and Conditions of Liquidity

Our sources to fund our material cash requirements are predominantly from our deliveries and servicing of new and used vehicles, sales and installations of our energy storage products, interest income, and proceeds from debt facilities and equity offerings, when applicable.

As of December 31, 2024, we had $16.14 billion and $20.42 billion of cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments, respectively. Balances held in foreign currencies had a U.S. dollar equivalent of $2.90 billion and consisted primarily of euros and Chinese yuan. We had $5.00 billion of unused committed credit amounts as of December 31, 2024. For details regarding our indebtedness, refer to Note 10, Debt, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

We continue adapting our strategy to meet our liquidity and risk objectives, such as investing in U.S. government securities and other investments, invest in autonomy, do more vertical integration, expand our product roadmap and provide financing options to our customers.

Summary of Cash Flows

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Our cash flows from operating activities are significantly affected by our cash investments to support the growth of our business in areas such as research and development and selling, general and administrative and working capital. Our operating cash inflows include cash from vehicle sales and related servicing, customer lease and financing payments, customer deposits, cash from sales of regulatory credits and energy generation and storage products, and interest income on our cash and investments portfolio. These cash inflows are offset by our payments to suppliers for production materials and parts used in our manufacturing process, operating expenses, operating lease payments and interest payments on our financings.

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Net cash provided by operating activities increased by $1.67 billion to $14.92 billion during the year ended December 31, 2024 from $13.26 billion during the year ended December 31, 2023. This increase was primarily due to favorable changes in net operating assets and liabilities of $2.29 billion, partially offset by a decrease in net income excluding non-cash expenses, gains and losses of $623 million.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Net cash flows from investing activities and their variability across each period related primarily to capital expenditures, which were $11.34 billion and $8.90 billion for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively, mainly for AI-related capital expenditures, global factory expansion and machinery and equipment as we expand and enhance our product roadmap. We also purchased $7.45 billion and $6.62 billion of investments, net of proceeds from maturities and sales, for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net cash flows from financing activities increased by $1.26 billion to $3.85 billion during the year ended December 31, 2024 from $2.59 billion during the year ended December 31, 2023. The increase was primarily due to a $1.81 billion increase in proceeds from issuances of debt, partially offset by a $1.15 billion increase in repayments of debt. See Note 10, Debt, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details regarding our debt obligations. Additionally, there was an increase of $541 million in proceeds from exercises of stock options and other stock issuances compared to the prior year.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

See Note 2, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For further discussion of our products and services, technology and competitive strengths, refer to Item 1- Business. For discussion related to changes in financial condition and the results of operations for fiscal year 2022-related items, refer to Part II, Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for fiscal year 2022, which was filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on January 31, 2023.

Overview and 2023 Highlights

Our mission is to accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy. We design, develop, manufacture, lease and sell high-performance fully electric vehicles, solar energy generation systems and energy storage products. We also offer maintenance, installation, operation, charging, insurance, financial and other services related to our products. Additionally, we are increasingly focused on products and services based on artificial intelligence, robotics and automation.

In 2023, we produced 1,845,985 consumer vehicles and delivered 1,808,581 consumer vehicles. We are currently focused on increasing vehicle production, capacity and delivery capabilities, reducing costs, improving and developing our vehicles and battery technologies, vertically integrating and localizing our supply chain, improving and further deploying our FSD capabilities, increasing the affordability and efficiency of our vehicles, bringing new products to market and expanding our global infrastructure, including our service and charging infrastructure.

In 2023, we deployed 14.72 GWh of energy storage products and 223 megawatts of solar energy systems. We are currently focused on ramping production of energy storage products, improving our Solar Roof installation capability and efficiency, and increasing market share of retrofit solar energy systems.

In 2023, we recognized total revenues of $96.77 billion, representing an increase of $15.31 billion, compared to the prior year. We continue to ramp production, build new manufacturing capacity and expand our operations to enable increased deliveries and deployments of our products, and invest in research and development to accelerate our AI, software and fleet-based profits for further revenue growth.

In 2023, our net income attributable to common stockholders was $15.00 billion, representing a favorable change of $2.44 billion, compared to the prior year. This included a one-time non-cash tax benefit of $5.93 billion for the release of valuation allowance on certain deferred tax assets. We continue to focus on further cost reductions and operational efficiencies while maximizing delivery volumes.

We ended 2023 with $29.09 billion in cash and cash equivalents and investments, representing an increase of $6.91 billion from the end of 2022. Our cash flows provided by operating activities in 2023 and 2022 were $13.26 billion and $14.72 billion, respectively, representing a decrease of $1.47 billion. Capital expenditures amounted to $8.90 billion in 2023, compared to $7.16 billion in 2022, representing an increase of $1.74 billion. Sustained growth has allowed our business to generally fund itself, and we will continue investing in a number of capital-intensive projects and research and development in upcoming periods.

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Management Opportunities, Challenges and Uncertainties and 2024 Outlook

Automotive—Production

The following is a summary of the status of production of each of our announced vehicle models in production and under development, as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K:

We are focused on growing our manufacturing capacity, which includes capacity for manufacturing new vehicle models such as our Cybertruck and next generation platform, and ramping all of our production vehicles to their installed production capacities as well as increasing production rate and efficiency at our current factories. The next phase of production growth will depend on the continued ramp at our factories and the introduction of our next generation platform, as well as our ability to add to our available sources of battery cell supply by manufacturing our own cells that we are developing to have high-volume output, lower capital and production costs and longer range. Our goals are to improve vehicle performance, decrease production costs and increase affordability and customer awareness.

These plans are subject to uncertainties inherent in establishing and ramping manufacturing operations, which may be exacerbated by new product and manufacturing technologies we introduce, the number of concurrent international projects, any industry-wide component constraints, labor shortages and any future impact from events outside of our control. For example, during the third quarter of 2023, we experienced a sequential decline in production volumes due to pre-planned shutdowns for upgrades at various factories. Moreover, we have set ambitious technological targets with our plans for battery cells as well as for iterative manufacturing and design improvements for our vehicles with each new factory.

Automotive—Demand, Sales, Deliveries and Infrastructure

Our cost reduction efforts, cost innovation strategies, and additional localized procurement and manufacturing are key to our vehicles’ affordability and have allowed us to competitively price our vehicles. We will also continue to generate demand and brand awareness by improving our vehicles’ performance and functionality, including through products based on artificial intelligence such as Autopilot, FSD Capability, and other software features and delivering new vehicles, such as our Cybertruck. Moreover, we expect to continue to benefit from ongoing electrification of the automotive sector and increasing environmental regulations and initiatives.

However, we operate in a cyclical industry that is sensitive to political and regulatory uncertainty, including with respect to trade and the environment, all of which can be compounded by inflationary pressures, rising energy prices, interest rate fluctuations and the liquidity of enterprise customers. For example, inflationary pressures have increased across the markets in which we operate. In an effort to curb this trend, central banks in developed countries raised interest rates rapidly and substantially, impacting the affordability of vehicle lease and finance arrangements. Further, sales of vehicles in the automotive industry also tend to be cyclical in many markets, which may expose us to increased volatility as we expand and adjust our operations. Moreover, as additional competitors enter the marketplace and help bring the world closer to sustainable transportation, we will have to adjust and continue to execute well to maintain our momentum. Additionally, our suppliers’ liquidity and allocation plans may be affected by current challenges in the North American automotive industry, which could reduce our access to components or result in unfavorable changes to cost. These macroeconomic and industry trends have had, and will likely continue to have, an impact on the pricing of, and order rate for our vehicles, and in turn our operating margin. Changes in government and economic incentives in relation to electric vehicles may also impact our sales. We will continue to adjust accordingly to such developments, and we believe our ongoing cost reduction, including improved production innovation and efficiency at our newest factories and lower logistics costs, and focus on operating leverage will continue to benefit us in relation to our competitors, while our new products will help enable future growth.

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As our production increases, we must work constantly to similarly increase vehicle delivery capability so that it does not become a bottleneck on our total deliveries. We are also committed to reducing the percentage of vehicles delivered in the third month of each quarter, which will help to reduce the cost per vehicle. As we expand our manufacturing operations globally, we will also have to continue to increase and staff our delivery, servicing and charging infrastructure accordingly, maintain our vehicle reliability and optimize our Supercharger locations to ensure cost effectiveness and customer satisfaction. In particular, as other automotive manufacturers have announced their adoption of the North American Charging Standard (“NACS”) and agreements with us to utilize our Superchargers, we must correspondingly expand our network in order to ensure adequate availability to meet customer demands. We also remain focused on continued enhancements of the capability and efficiency of our servicing operations.

Energy Generation and Storage Demand, Production and Deployment

The long-term success of this business is dependent upon increasing margins through greater volumes. We continue to increase the production of our energy storage products to meet high levels of demand, including the construction of a new Megafactory in Shanghai and the ongoing ramp at our Megafactory in Lathrop, California. For Megapack, energy storage deployments can vary meaningfully quarter to quarter depending on the timing of specific project milestones. We remain committed to growing our retrofit solar energy business by offering a low-cost and simplified online ordering experience. In addition, we continue to seek to improve our installation capabilities and price efficiencies for Solar Roof. As these product lines grow, we will have to maintain adequate battery cell supply for our energy storage products and ensure the availability of qualified personnel, particularly skilled electricians, to support the ramp of Solar Roof.

Cash Flow and Capital Expenditure Trends

Our capital expenditures are typically difficult to project beyond the short-term given the number and breadth of our core projects at any given time, and may further be impacted by uncertainties in future global market conditions. We are simultaneously ramping new products, building or ramping manufacturing facilities on three continents, piloting the development and manufacture of new battery cell technologies, expanding our Supercharger network and investing in autonomy and other artificial intelligence enabled training and products, and the pace of our capital spend may vary depending on overall priority among projects, the pace at which we meet milestones, production adjustments to and among our various products, increased capital efficiencies and the addition of new projects. Owing and subject to the foregoing as well as the pipeline of announced projects under development, all other continuing infrastructure growth and varying levels of inflation, we currently expect our capital expenditures to exceed $10.00 billion in 2024 and be between $8.00 to $10.00 billion in each of the following two fiscal years.

Our business has been consistently generating cash flow from operations in excess of our level of capital spend, and with better working capital management resulting in shorter days sales outstanding than days payable outstanding, our sales growth is also generally facilitating positive cash generation. We have and will continue to utilize such cash flows, among other things, to do more vertical integration, expand our product roadmap and provide financing options to our customers. At the same time, we are likely to see heightened levels of capital expenditures during certain periods depending on the specific pace of our capital-intensive projects and other potential variables such as rising material prices and increases in supply chain and labor expenses resulting from changes in global trade conditions and labor availability. Overall, we expect our ability to be self-funding to continue as long as macroeconomic factors support current trends in our sales.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

The consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. (“GAAP”). The preparation of the consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues, costs and expenses and related disclosures. We base our estimates on historical experience, as appropriate, and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Changes in the accounting estimates are reasonably likely to occur from period to period. Accordingly, actual results could differ significantly from the estimates made by our management. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. To the extent that there are material differences between these estimates and actual results, our future financial statement presentation, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows may be affected.

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The estimates used for, but not limited to, determining significant economic incentive for resale value guarantee arrangements, sales return reserves, the collectability of accounts and financing receivables, inventory valuation, warranties, fair value of long-lived assets, goodwill, fair value of financial instruments, fair value and residual value of operating lease vehicles and solar energy systems subject to leases could be impacted. We have assessed the impact and are not aware of any specific events or circumstances that required an update to our estimates and assumptions or materially affected the carrying value of our assets or liabilities as of the date of issuance of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. These estimates may change as new events occur and additional information is obtained. Actual results could differ materially from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

Revenue Recognition

Automotive Sales

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to cash and financing deliveries of new vehicles, and specific other features and services that meet the definition of a performance obligation under Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) 606, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (“ASC 606”), including access to our FSD Capability features and their ongoing maintenance, internet connectivity, free Supercharging programs and over-the-air software updates. We recognize revenue on automotive sales upon delivery to the customer, which is when the control of a vehicle transfers. Payments are typically received at the point control transfers or in accordance with payment terms customary to the business, except sales we finance for which payments are collected over the contractual loan term. We also recognize a sales return reserve based on historical experience plus consideration for expected future market values, when we offer resale value guarantees or similar buyback terms. Other features and services such as access to our internet connectivity, unlimited free Supercharging and over-the-air software updates are provisioned upon control transfer of a vehicle and recognized over time on a straight-line basis as we have a stand-ready obligation to deliver such services to the customer. Other limited free Supercharging incentives are recognized based on actual usage or expiration, whichever is earlier. We recognize revenue related to these other features and services over the performance period, which is generally the expected ownership life of the vehicle. Revenue related to FSD Capability features is recognized when functionality is delivered to the customer and their ongoing maintenance is recognized over time. For our obligations related to automotive sales, we estimate standalone selling price by considering costs used to develop and deliver the service, third-party pricing of similar options and other information that may be available.

Inventory Valuation

Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Cost is computed using standard cost for vehicles and energy products, which approximates actual cost on a first-in, first-out basis. We record inventory write-downs for excess or obsolete inventories based upon assumptions about current and future demand forecasts. If our inventory on-hand is in excess of our future demand forecast, the excess amounts are written-off.

We also review our inventory to determine whether its carrying value exceeds the net amount realizable upon the ultimate sale of the inventory. This requires us to determine the estimated selling price of our vehicles less the estimated cost to convert the inventory on-hand into a finished product. Once inventory is written-down, a new, lower cost basis for that inventory is established and subsequent changes in facts and circumstances do not result in the restoration or increase in that newly established cost basis.

Should our estimates of future selling prices or production costs change, additional and potentially material write-downs may be required. A small change in our estimates may result in a material charge to our reported financial results.

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Warranties

We provide a manufacturer’s warranty on all new and used vehicles and a warranty on the installation and components of the energy generation and storage systems we sell for periods typically between 10 to 25 years. We accrue a warranty reserve for the products sold by us, which includes our best estimate of the projected costs to repair or replace items under warranties and recalls if identified. These estimates are based on actual claims incurred to date and an estimate of the nature, frequency and costs of future claims. These estimates are inherently uncertain and changes to our historical or projected warranty experience may cause material changes to the warranty reserve in the future. The warranty reserve does not include projected warranty costs associated with our vehicles subject to operating lease accounting and our solar energy systems under lease contracts or PPAs, as the costs to repair these warranty claims are expensed as incurred. The portion of the warranty reserve expected to be incurred within the next 12 months is included within Accrued liabilities and other, while the remaining balance is included within Other long-term liabilities on the consolidated balance sheets. For liabilities that we are entitled to receive indemnification from our suppliers, we record receivables for the contractually obligated amounts on the consolidated balance sheets as a component of Prepaid expenses and other current assets for the current portion and as Other non-current assets for the long-term portion. Warranty expense is recorded as a component of Cost of revenues in the consolidated statements of operations. Due to the magnitude of our automotive business, our accrued warranty balance is primarily related to our automotive segment.

Stock-Based Compensation

We use the fair value method of accounting for our stock options and restricted stock units (“RSUs”) granted to employees and for our employee stock purchase plan (the “ESPP”) to measure the cost of employee services received in exchange for the stock-based awards. The fair value of stock option awards with only service and/or performance conditions is estimated on the grant or offering date using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The Black-Scholes option-pricing model requires inputs such as the risk-free interest rate, expected term and expected volatility. These inputs are subjective and generally require significant judgment. The fair value of RSUs is measured on the grant date based on the closing fair market value of our common stock. The resulting cost is recognized over the period during which an employee is required to provide service in exchange for the awards, usually the vesting period, which is generally four years for stock options and RSUs and six months for the ESPP. Stock-based compensation expense is recognized on a straight-line basis, net of actual forfeitures in the period.

For performance-based awards, stock-based compensation expense is recognized over the expected performance achievement period of individual performance milestones when the achievement of each individual performance milestone becomes probable.

As we accumulate additional employee stock-based awards data over time and as we incorporate market data related to our common stock, we may calculate significantly different volatilities and expected lives, which could materially impact the valuation of our stock-based awards and the stock-based compensation expense that we will recognize in future periods. Stock-based compensation expense is recorded in Cost of revenues, Research and development expense and Selling, general and administrative expense in the consolidated statements of operations.

Income Taxes

We are subject to income taxes in the U.S. and in many foreign jurisdictions. Significant judgment is required in determining our provision for income taxes, our deferred tax assets and liabilities and any valuation allowance recorded against our net deferred tax assets that are not more likely than not to be realized. We monitor the realizability of our deferred tax assets taking into account all relevant factors at each reporting period. In completing our assessment of realizability of our deferred tax assets, we consider our history of income (loss) measured at pre-tax income (loss) adjusted for permanent book-tax differences on a jurisdictional basis, volatility in actual earnings, excess tax benefits related to stock-based compensation in recent prior years, and impacts of the timing of reversal of existing temporary differences. We also rely on our assessment of the Company’s projected future results of business operations, including uncertainty in future operating results relative to historical results, volatility in the market price of our common stock and its performance over time, variable macroeconomic conditions impacting our ability to forecast future taxable income, and changes in business that may affect the existence and magnitude of future taxable income. Our valuation allowance assessment is based on our best estimate of future results considering all available information.

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Furthermore, significant judgment is required in evaluating our tax positions. In the ordinary course of business, there are many transactions and calculations for which the ultimate tax settlement is uncertain. As a result, we recognize the effect of this uncertainty on our tax attributes or taxes payable based on our estimates of the eventual outcome. These effects are recognized when, despite our belief that our tax return positions are supportable, we believe that it is more likely than not that some of those positions may not be fully sustained upon review by tax authorities. We are required to file income tax returns in the U.S. and various foreign jurisdictions, which requires us to interpret the applicable tax laws and regulations in effect in such jurisdictions. Such returns are subject to audit by the various federal, state and foreign taxing authorities, who may disagree with respect to our tax positions. We believe that our consideration is adequate for all open audit years based on our assessment of many factors, including past experience and interpretations of tax law. We review and update our estimates in light of changing facts and circumstances, such as the closing of a tax audit, the lapse of a statute of limitations or a change in estimate. To the extent that the final tax outcome of these matters differs from our expectations, such differences may impact income tax expense in the period in which such determination is made.

Results of Operations

Revenues

Automotive & Services and Other Segment

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to cash and financing deliveries of new Model S, Model X, Semi, Model 3, Model Y, and Cybertruck vehicles, including access to our FSD Capability features and their ongoing maintenance, internet connectivity, free Supercharging programs and over-the-air software updates. These deliveries are vehicles that are not subject to lease accounting.

Automotive regulatory credits includes sales of regulatory credits to other automotive manufacturers. Our revenue from automotive regulatory credits is directly related to our new vehicle production, sales and pricing negotiated with our customers. We monetize them proactively as new vehicles are sold based on standing arrangements with buyers of such credits, typically as close as possible to the production and delivery of the vehicle or changes in regulation impacting the credits.

Automotive leasing revenue includes the amortization of revenue for vehicles under direct operating lease agreements. Additionally, automotive leasing revenue includes direct sales-type leasing programs where we recognize all revenue associated with the sales-type lease upon delivery to the customer.

Services and other revenue consists of sales of used vehicles, non-warranty after-sales vehicle services, body shop and parts, paid Supercharging, vehicle insurance revenue and retail merchandise.

2023 compared to 2022

Automotive sales revenue increased $11.30 billion, or 17%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, primarily due to an increase of 473,382 combined Model 3 and Model Y cash deliveries from production ramping of Model Y globally. The increase was partially offset by a lower average selling price on our vehicles driven by overall price reductions year over year, sales mix, and a negative impact from the United States dollar strengthening against other foreign currencies in the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to the prior year.

Automotive regulatory credits revenue increased $14 million, or 1%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022.

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Automotive leasing revenue decreased $356 million, or 14%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease was primarily due to a decrease in direct sales-type leasing revenue driven by lower deliveries year over year, partially offset by an increase from our growing direct operating lease portfolio.

Services and other revenue increased $2.23 billion, or 37%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The increase was primarily due to higher used vehicle revenue driven by increases in volume, body shop and part sales revenue, non-warranty maintenance services revenue, paid Supercharging revenue and insurance services revenue, all of which are primarily attributable to our growing fleet. The increases were partially offset by a decrease in the average selling price of used vehicles.

Energy Generation and Storage Segment

Energy generation and storage revenue includes sales and leasing of solar energy generation and energy storage products, financing of solar energy generation products, services related to such products and sales of solar energy systems incentives.

2023 compared to 2022

Energy generation and storage revenue increased $2.13 billion, or 54%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The increase was primarily due to an increase in deployments of Megapack.

Cost of Revenues and Gross Margin

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Automotive & Services and Other Segment

Cost of automotive sales revenue includes direct and indirect materials, labor costs, manufacturing overhead, including depreciation costs of tooling and machinery, shipping and logistic costs, vehicle connectivity costs, FSD ongoing maintenance costs, allocations of electricity and infrastructure costs related to our Supercharger network and reserves for estimated warranty expenses. Cost of automotive sales revenues also includes adjustments to warranty expense and charges to write down the carrying value of our inventory when it exceeds its estimated net realizable value and to provide for obsolete and on-hand inventory in excess of forecasted demand. Additionally, cost of automotive sales revenue benefits from manufacturing credits earned.

Cost of automotive leasing revenue includes the depreciation of operating lease vehicles, cost of goods sold associated with direct sales-type leases and warranty expense related to leased vehicles.

Costs of services and other revenue includes cost of used vehicles including refurbishment costs, costs associated with providing non-warranty after-sales services, costs associated with our body shops and part sales, costs of paid Supercharging, costs to provide vehicle insurance and costs for retail merchandise.

2023 compared to 2022

Cost of automotive sales revenue increased $15.52 billion, or 31%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. Cost of automotive sales revenue increased in line with the change in deliveries year over year, as discussed above. The increase was partially offset by a decrease in the average combined cost per unit of our vehicles primarily due to sales mix, lower inbound freight, a decrease in material costs and lower manufacturing costs from better fixed cost absorption. Our costs of revenue were also positively impacted by the United States dollar strengthening against our foreign currencies as compared to the prior periods and by the IRA manufacturing credits earned during the current year.

Cost of automotive leasing revenue decreased $241 million, or 16%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease was primarily due to a decrease in direct sales-type leasing cost of revenue driven by lower deliveries year over year.

Cost of services and other revenue increased $1.95 billion, or 33%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The increase was generally in line with the changes in services and other revenue as discussed above.

Gross margin for total automotive decreased from 28.5% to 19.4% in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease was primarily due to a lower average selling price on our vehicles partially offset by the favorable change in our average combined cost per unit of our vehicles and IRA manufacturing credits earned as discussed above.

Gross margin for total automotive & services and other segment decreased from 26.5% to 18.2% in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, primarily due to the automotive gross margin decrease discussed above.

Energy Generation and Storage Segment

Cost of energy generation and storage revenue includes direct and indirect material and labor costs, warehouse rent, freight, warranty expense, other overhead costs and amortization of certain acquired intangible assets. Cost of energy generation and storage revenue also includes charges to write down the carrying value of our inventory when it exceeds its estimated net realizable value and to provide for obsolete and on-hand inventory in excess of forecasted demand. Additionally, cost of energy generation and storage revenue benefits from manufacturing credits earned. In agreements for solar energy systems and PPAs where we are the lessor, the cost of revenue is primarily comprised of depreciation of the cost of leased solar energy systems, maintenance costs associated with those systems and amortization of any initial direct costs.

2023 compared to 2022

Cost of energy generation and storage revenue increased $1.27 billion, or 35%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, in line with the increase in Megapack deployments year over year, as discussed above. This increase was partially offset by an improvement in production ramping that drove down the average cost per MWh of Megapack as well as IRA manufacturing credits earned during the current year.

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Gross margin for energy generation and storage increased from 7.4% to 18.9% in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The increase was driven by an improvement in our Megapack gross margin from lower average cost per MWh and a higher proportion of Megapack, which operated at a higher gross margin, within the segment as compared to the prior year periods. Additionally, there was a margin benefit from IRA manufacturing credits earned.

Research and Development Expense

Research and development (“R&D”) expenses consist primarily of personnel costs for our teams in engineering and research, manufacturing engineering and manufacturing test organizations, prototyping expense, contract and professional services and amortized equipment expense.

R&D expenses increased $894 million, or 29%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The overall increase was primarily driven by additional costs in the current year related to the pre-production phase for Cybertruck, AI and other programs.

R&D expenses as a percentage of revenue stayed consistent at 4% in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. Our R&D expenses have increased proportionately with total revenues as we continue to expand our product roadmap and technologies.

Selling, General and Administrative Expense

Selling, general and administrative (“SG&A”) expenses generally consist of personnel and facilities costs related to our stores, marketing, sales, executive, finance, human resources, information technology and legal organizations, as well as fees for professional and contract services and litigation settlements.

SG&A expenses increased $854 million, or 22%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. This was driven by a $447 million increase in employee and labor costs primarily from increased headcount, including professional services and a $363 million increase in facilities related expenses.

Restructuring and Other

During the year ended December 31, 2022, we recorded an impairment loss of $204 million as well as realized gains of $64 million in connection with converting our holdings of digital assets into fiat currency. We also recorded other expenses of $36 million during the second quarter of the year ended December 31, 2022, related to employee terminations.

Interest Income

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Interest income increased $769 million, or 259%, in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. This increase was primarily due to higher interest earned on our cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the prior year due to rising interest rates and our increasing portfolio balance.

Other Income (Expense), Net

Other income (expense), net, consists primarily of foreign exchange gains and losses related to our foreign currency-denominated monetary assets and liabilities. We expect our foreign exchange gains and losses will vary depending upon movements in the underlying exchange rates.

Other income, net, changed favorably by $215 million in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The favorable change was primarily due to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates on our intercompany balances.

(Benefit from) Provision for Income Taxes

We monitor the realizability of our deferred tax assets taking into account all relevant factors at each reporting period. As of December 31, 2023, based on the relevant weight of positive and negative evidence, including the amount of our taxable income in recent years which is objective and verifiable, and consideration of our expected future taxable earnings, we concluded that it is more likely than not that our U.S. federal and certain state deferred tax assets are realizable. As such, we released $6.54 billion of our valuation allowance associated with the U.S. federal and state deferred tax assets, with the exception of our California deferred tax assets. Approximately $5.93 billion of the total valuation allowance release was related to deferred tax assets to be realized in the future years and the remainder benefited us during the year ended December 31, 2023. We continue to maintain a full valuation allowance against our California deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2023, because we concluded they are not more likely than not to be realized as we expect our California deferred tax assets generation in future years to exceed our ability to use these deferred tax assets.

Our (benefit from) provision for income taxes changed by $6.13 billion in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, primarily due to the release of $6.54 billion of our valuation allowance associated with the U.S. federal and certain state deferred tax assets.

Our effective tax rate changed from an expense of 8% to a benefit of 50% in the year ended December 31, 2023 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, primarily due to the release of the valuation allowance regarding our U.S. federal and certain state deferred tax assets.

See Note 14, Income Taxes, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

We expect to continue to generate net positive operating cash flow as we have done in the last five fiscal years. The cash we generate from our core operations enables us to fund ongoing operations and production, our research and development projects for new products and technologies including our proprietary battery cells, additional manufacturing ramps at existing manufacturing facilities, the construction of future factories, and the continued expansion of our retail and service locations, body shops, Mobile Service fleet, Supercharger, including to support NACS, energy product installation capabilities and autonomy and other artificial intelligence enabled products.

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In addition, because a large portion of our future expenditures will be to fund our growth, we expect that if needed we will be able to adjust our capital and operating expenditures by operating segment. For example, if our near-term manufacturing operations decrease in scale or ramp more slowly than expected, including due to global economic or business conditions, we may choose to correspondingly slow the pace of our capital expenditures. Finally, we continually evaluate our cash needs and may decide it is best to raise additional capital or seek alternative financing sources to fund the rapid growth of our business, including through drawdowns on existing or new debt facilities or financing funds. Conversely, we may also from time to time determine that it is in our best interests to voluntarily repay certain indebtedness early.

Accordingly, we believe that our current sources of funds will provide us with adequate liquidity during the 12-month period following December 31, 2023, as well as in the long-term.

See the sections below for more details regarding the material requirements for cash in our business and our sources of liquidity to meet such needs.

Material Cash Requirements

From time to time in the ordinary course of business, we enter into agreements with vendors for the purchase of components and raw materials to be used in the manufacture of our products. However, due to contractual terms, variability in the precise growth curves of our development and production ramps, and opportunities to renegotiate pricing, we generally do not have binding and enforceable purchase orders under such contracts beyond the short-term, and the timing and magnitude of purchase orders beyond such period is difficult to accurately project.

As discussed in and subject to the considerations referenced in Part II, Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Management Opportunities, Challenges and Uncertainties and 2023 Outlook—Cash Flow and Capital Expenditure Trends in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, we currently expect our capital expenditures to support our projects globally to exceed $10.00 billion in 2024 and be between $8.00 to $10.00 billion in each of the following two fiscal years. In connection with our operations at Gigafactory New York, we have an agreement to spend or incur $5.00 billion in combined capital, operational expenses, costs of goods sold and other costs in the State of New York through December 31, 2029 (pursuant to a deferral of our required timelines to meet such obligations that was granted in April 2021, and which was memorialized in an amendment to our agreement with the SUNY Foundation in August 2021). For details regarding these obligations, refer to Note 15, Commitments and Contingencies, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

As of December 31, 2023, we and our subsidiaries had outstanding $4.68 billion in aggregate principal amount of indebtedness, of which $1.98 billion is scheduled to become due in the succeeding 12 months. As of December 31, 2023, our total minimum lease payments was $5.96 billion, of which $1.31 billion is due in the succeeding 12 months. For details regarding our indebtedness and lease obligations, refer to Note 11, Debt, and Note 12, Leases, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Sources and Conditions of Liquidity

Our sources to fund our material cash requirements are predominantly from our deliveries and servicing of new and used vehicles, sales and installations of our energy storage products and solar energy systems, proceeds from debt facilities and proceeds from equity offerings, when applicable.

As of December 31, 2023, we had $16.40 billion and $12.70 billion of cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments, respectively. Balances held in foreign currencies had a U.S. dollar equivalent of $4.43 billion and consisted primarily of Chinese yuan and euros. We had $5.03 billion of unused committed credit amounts as of December 31, 2023. For details regarding our indebtedness, refer to Note 11, Debt, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

We continue adapting our strategy to meet our liquidity and risk objectives, such as investing in U.S. government securities and other investments, to do more vertical integration, expand our product roadmap and provide financing options to our customers.

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Summary of Cash Flows

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Our cash flows from operating activities are significantly affected by our cash investments to support the growth of our business in areas such as research and development and selling, general and administrative and working capital. Our operating cash inflows include cash from vehicle sales and related servicing, customer lease and financing payments, customer deposits, cash from sales of regulatory credits and energy generation and storage products, and interest income on our cash and investments portfolio. These cash inflows are offset by our payments to suppliers for production materials and parts used in our manufacturing process, operating expenses, operating lease payments and interest payments on our financings.

Net cash provided by operating activities decreased by $1.47 billion to $13.26 billion during the year ended December 31, 2023 from $14.72 billion during the year ended December 31, 2022. This decrease was primarily due to the decrease in net income excluding non-cash expenses, gains and losses of $2.93 billion, partially offset by favorable changes in net operating assets and liabilities of $1.46 billion.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Cash flows from investing activities and their variability across each period related primarily to capital expenditures, which were $8.90 billion for the year ended December 31, 2023 and $7.16 billion for the year ended December 31, 2022, mainly for global factory expansion and machinery and equipment as we expand our product roadmap. We also purchased $6.62 billion and $5.81 billion of investments, net of proceeds from maturities and sales, for the year ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. Additionally, proceeds from sales of digital assets was $936 million in the year ended December 31, 2022.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net cash from financing activities changed by $6.12 billion to $2.59 billion net cash provided by financing activities during the year ended December 31, 2023 from $3.53 billion net cash used in financing activities during the year ended December 31, 2022. The change was primarily due to a $3.93 billion increase in proceeds from issuances of debt and a $2.01 billion decrease in repayments of debt. See Note 11, Debt, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details regarding our debt obligations.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

See Note 2, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For further discussion of our products and services, technology and competitive strengths, refer to Item 1- Business. For discussion related to changes in financial condition and the results of operations for fiscal year 2021-related items, refer to Part II, Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for fiscal year 2021, which was filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on February 7, 2022.

Overview and 2022 Highlights

Our mission is to accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy. We design, develop, manufacture, lease and sell high-performance fully electric vehicles, solar energy generation systems and energy storage products. We also offer maintenance, installation, operation, financial and other services related to our products. Additionally, we are increasingly focused on products and services based on artificial intelligence, robotics and automation.

In 2022, we produced 1,369,611 consumer vehicles and delivered 1,313,851 consumer vehicles, despite ongoing supply chain and logistics challenges and factory shutdowns. We are currently focused on increasing vehicle production, capacity and delivery capabilities, improving and developing battery technologies, improving our FSD capabilities, increasing the affordability and efficiency of our vehicles, bringing new products to market and expanding our global infrastructure.

In 2022, we deployed 6.5 GWh of energy storage products and 348 megawatts of solar energy systems. We are currently focused on ramping production of energy storage products, improving our Solar Roof installation capability and efficiency, and increasing market share of retrofit and new build solar energy systems.

In 2022, we recognized total revenues of $81.46 billion, respectively, representing an increase of $27.64 billion, compared to the prior year. We continue to ramp production, build new manufacturing capacity and expand our operations to enable increased deliveries and deployments of our products and further revenue growth.

In 2022, our net income attributable to common stockholders was $12.56 billion, representing a favorable change of $7.04 billion, compared to the prior year. We continue to focus on improving our profitability through production and operational efficiencies.

We ended 2022 with $22.19 billion in cash and cash equivalents and investments, representing an increase of $4.48 billion from the end of 2021. Our cash flows provided by operating activities during 2022 and 2021 were $14.72 billion and $11.50 billion, respectively, representing an increase of $3.23 billion. Capital expenditures amounted to $7.16 billion during 2022, compared to $6.48 billion during 2021. Sustained growth has allowed our business to generally fund itself, and we will continue investing in a number of capital-intensive projects in upcoming periods.

Management Opportunities, Challenges and Uncertainties and 2023 Outlook

Automotive—Production

The following is a summary of the status of production of each of our announced vehicle models in production and under development, as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K:

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We are focused on growing our manufacturing capacity, which includes ramping all of our production vehicles to their installed production capacities as well as increasing production rate, efficiency and capacity at our current factories. The next phase of production growth will depend on the ramp at Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg and Gigafactory Texas, as well as our ability to add to our available sources of battery cell supply by manufacturing our own cells that we are developing to have high-volume output, lower capital and production costs and longer range. Our goals are to improve vehicle performance, decrease production costs and increase affordability.

However, these plans are subject to uncertainties inherent in establishing and ramping manufacturing operations, which may be exacerbated by the new product and manufacturing technologies we are introducing, the number of concurrent international projects, any industry-wide component constraints, labor shortages and any future impact from events outside of our control such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, we have set ambitious technological targets with our plans for battery cells as well as for iterative manufacturing and design improvements for our vehicles with each new factory.

Automotive—Demand and Sales

Our cost reduction efforts, cost innovation strategies, and additional localized procurement and manufacturing are key to our vehicles’ affordability, and for example, have allowed us to competitively price our vehicles in China. We will also continue to generate demand and brand awareness by improving our vehicles’ performance and functionality, including through products based on artificial intelligence such as Autopilot and FSD, and other software features, and delivering new vehicles, such as the Tesla Semi in December 2022. Moreover, we expect to continue to benefit from ongoing electrification of the automotive sector and increasing environmental awareness.

However, we operate in a cyclical industry that is sensitive to political and regulatory uncertainty, including with respect to trade and the environment, all of which can be compounded by inflationary pressures, rising energy prices, increases in interest rates and any future global impact from the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, in the earlier part of 2022, the automotive industry in general experienced part shortages and supplier disruptions which impacted production leading to a general increase in vehicle pricing. As the year progressed, inflationary pressures increased across the markets in which we operate. In an effort to curb this trend, central banks in developed countries raised interest rates rapidly and substantially, impacting the affordability of vehicle lease and finance arrangements. Further, sales of vehicles in the automotive industry also tend to be cyclical in many markets, which may expose us to increased volatility as we expand and adjust our operations. Moreover, as additional competitors enter the marketplace and help bring the world closer to sustainable transportation, we will have to adjust and continue to execute well to maintain our momentum. These macroeconomic and industry trends have had, and will likely continue to have, an impact on the pricing of, and order rate for our vehicles, and we will continue to adjust accordingly to such developments.

Automotive—Deliveries and Customer Infrastructure

As our production increases, we must work constantly to similarly increase vehicle delivery capability so that it does not become a bottleneck on our total deliveries. Beginning the second half of 2022, due to continuing challenges caused by vehicle transportation capacity during peak delivery periods, we began transitioning to a more even regional mix of vehicle builds each week, which led to an increase in cars in transit at the end of the year. Increasing the exports of vehicles manufactured at Gigafactory Shanghai has also been effective in mitigating the strain on our deliveries in markets outside of the United States, and we expect to benefit further from situating additional factories closer to local markets, including the production launch at Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg and Gigafactory Austin. As we expand our manufacturing operations globally, we will also have to continue to increase and staff our delivery, servicing and charging infrastructure accordingly, maintain our vehicle reliability and optimize our Supercharger locations to ensure cost effectiveness and customer satisfaction. In particular, we remain focused on increasing the capability and efficiency of our servicing operations.

Energy Generation and Storage Demand, Production and Deployment

The long-term success of this business is dependent upon increasing margins through greater volumes. We continue to increase the production of our energy storage products to meet high levels of demand. For Megapack, energy storage deployments can vary meaningfully quarter to quarter depending on the timing of specific project milestones. For Powerwall, better availability and growing grid stability concerns drive higher customer interest. We remain committed to growing our retrofit solar energy business by offering a low-cost and simplified online ordering experience. In addition, we continue to seek to improve our installation capabilities and price efficiencies for Solar Roof. As these product lines grow, we will have to maintain adequate battery cell supply for our energy storage products and hire additional personnel, particularly skilled electricians, to support the ramp of Solar Roof.

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Cash Flow and Capital Expenditure Trends

Our capital expenditures are typically difficult to project beyond the short-term given the number and breadth of our core projects at any given time, and may further be impacted by uncertainties in future global market conditions. We are simultaneously ramping new products, ramping manufacturing facilities on three continents and piloting the development and manufacture of new battery cell technologies, and the pace of our capital spend may vary depending on overall priority among projects, the pace at which we meet milestones, production adjustments to and among our various products, increased capital efficiencies and the addition of new projects. Owing and subject to the foregoing as well as the pipeline of announced projects under development, all other continuing infrastructure growth and varying levels of inflation, we currently expect our capital expenditures to be between $6.00 to $8.00 billion in 2023 and between $7.00 to $9.00 billion in each of the following two fiscal years.

Our business has recently been consistently generating cash flow from operations in excess of our level of capital spend, and with better working capital management resulting in shorter days sales outstanding than days payable outstanding, our sales growth is also facilitating positive cash generation. We have and will continue to utilize such cash flows, among other things, to do more vertical integration, expand our product roadmap and provide financing options to our customers. On the other hand, we are likely to see heightened levels of capital expenditures during certain periods depending on the specific pace of our capital-intensive projects and rising material prices and increasing supply chain and labor expenses resulting from changes in global trade conditions and labor availability associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, we expect our ability to be self-funding to continue as long as macroeconomic factors support current trends in our sales.

Operating Expense Trends

As long as we see expanding sales, and excluding the potential impact of macroeconomic conditions including increased labor costs and impairment charges on certain assets as explained below, we generally expect operating expenses relative to revenues to decrease as we continue to increase operational efficiency and process automation. We expect operating expenses to continue to grow in 2023 as we are expanding our operations globally.

In the first quarter of 2021, we invested an aggregate $1.50 billion in bitcoin. As with any investment and consistent with how we manage fiat-based cash and cash-equivalent accounts, we may increase or decrease our holdings of digital assets at any time based on the needs of the business and our view of market and environmental conditions. Digital assets are considered indefinite-lived intangible assets under applicable accounting rules. Accordingly, any decrease in their fair values below our carrying values for such assets at any time subsequent to their acquisition will require us to recognize impairment charges, whereas we may make no upward revisions for any market price increases until a sale. For any digital assets held now or in the future, these charges may negatively impact our profitability in the periods in which such impairments occur even if the overall market values of these assets increase. For example, in the year ended December 31, 2022, we recorded $204 million of impairment losses resulting from changes to the carrying value of our bitcoin and gains of $64 million on certain conversions of bitcoin into fiat currency by us.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

The consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. (“GAAP”). The preparation of the consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues, costs and expenses and related disclosures. We base our estimates on historical experience, as appropriate, and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Changes in the accounting estimates are reasonably likely to occur from period to period. Accordingly, actual results could differ significantly from the estimates made by our management. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. To the extent that there are material differences between these estimates and actual results, our future financial statement presentation, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows may be affected.

The estimates used for, but not limited to, determining significant economic incentive for resale value guarantee arrangements, sales return reserves, the collectability of accounts and financing receivables, inventory valuation, warranties, fair value of long-lived assets, goodwill, fair value of financial instruments, fair value and residual value of operating lease vehicles and solar energy systems subject to leases could be impacted. We have assessed the impact and are not aware of any specific events or circumstances that required an update to our estimates and assumptions or materially affected the carrying value of our assets or liabilities as of the date of issuance of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. These estimates may change as new events occur and additional information is obtained. Actual results could differ materially from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

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Revenue Recognition

Automotive Sales

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to cash and financing deliveries of new vehicles, and specific other features and services that meet the definition of a performance obligation under Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) 606, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (“ASC 606”), including access to our FSD features, internet connectivity, Supercharger network and over-the-air software updates. We recognize revenue on automotive sales upon delivery to the customer, which is when the control of a vehicle transfers. Payments are typically received at the point control transfers or in accordance with payment terms customary to the business, except sales we finance for which payments are collected over the contractual loan term. We also recognize a sales return reserve based on historical experience plus consideration for expected future market values, when we offer resale value guarantees or similar buyback terms. Other features and services such as access to our internet connectivity, legacy programs offering unlimited free Supercharging and over-the-air software updates are provisioned upon control transfer of a vehicle and recognized over time on a straight-line basis as we have a stand-ready obligation to deliver such services to the customer. Other limited free Supercharging incentives are recognized based on actual usage or expiration, whichever is earlier. We recognize revenue related to these other features and services over the performance period, which is generally the expected ownership life of the vehicle. Revenue related to FSD is recognized when functionality is delivered to the customer and the portion related to software updates is recognized over time. For our obligations related to automotive sales, we estimate standalone selling price by considering costs used to develop and deliver the service, third-party pricing of similar options and other information that may be available.

Any fees that are paid or payable by us to a customer’s lender when we arrange the financing are recognized as an offset against automotive sales revenue. Costs to obtain a contract mainly relate to commissions paid to our sales personnel for the sale of vehicles. As our contract costs related to automotive sales are typically fulfilled within one year, the costs to obtain a contract are expensed as incurred. Amounts billed to customers related to shipping and handling are classified as automotive sales revenue, and we have elected to recognize the cost for freight and shipping when control over vehicles, parts or accessories have transferred to the customer as an expense in cost of automotive sales revenue. Our policy is to exclude taxes collected from a customer from the transaction price of automotive contracts.

We offer resale value guarantees or similar buy-back terms to certain international customers who purchase vehicles and who finance their vehicles through one of our specified commercial banking partners. Under these programs, we receive full payment for the vehicle sales price at the time of delivery and our counterparty has the option of selling their vehicle back to us during the guarantee period, which currently is generally at the end of the term of the applicable loan or financing program, for a pre-determined resale value. We account for such automotive sales as a sale with a right of return when we do not believe the customer has a significant economic incentive to exercise the resale value guarantee provided to them at contract inception. The process to determine whether there is a significant economic incentive includes a comparison of a vehicle’s estimated market value at the time the option is exercisable with the guaranteed resale value to determine the customer’s economic incentive to exercise. On a quarterly basis, we assess the estimated market values of vehicles sold with resale value guarantees to determine whether there have been changes to the likelihood of future product returns. As we accumulate more data related to the resale values of our vehicles or as market conditions change, there may be material changes to their estimated values.

Inventory Valuation

Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Cost is computed using standard cost for vehicles and energy products, which approximates actual cost on a first-in, first-out basis. We record inventory write-downs for excess or obsolete inventories based upon assumptions about current and future demand forecasts. If our inventory on-hand is in excess of our future demand forecast, the excess amounts are written-off.

We also review our inventory to determine whether its carrying value exceeds the net amount realizable upon the ultimate sale of the inventory. This requires us to determine the estimated selling price of our vehicles less the estimated cost to convert the inventory on-hand into a finished product. Once inventory is written-down, a new, lower cost basis for that inventory is established and subsequent changes in facts and circumstances do not result in the restoration or increase in that newly established cost basis.

Should our estimates of future selling prices or production costs change, additional and potentially material write-downs may be required. A small change in our estimates may result in a material charge to our reported financial results.

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Warranties

We provide a manufacturer’s warranty on all new and used vehicles and a warranty on the installation and components of the energy generation and storage systems we sell for periods typically between 10 to 25 years. We accrue a warranty reserve for the products sold by us, which includes our best estimate of the projected costs to repair or replace items under warranties and recalls if identified. These estimates are based on actual claims incurred to date and an estimate of the nature, frequency and costs of future claims. These estimates are inherently uncertain given our relatively short history of sales, and changes to our historical or projected warranty experience may cause material changes to the warranty reserve in the future. The warranty reserve does not include projected warranty costs associated with our vehicles subject to operating lease accounting and our solar energy systems under lease contracts or PPAs, as the costs to repair these warranty claims are expensed as incurred. The portion of the warranty reserve expected to be incurred within the next 12 months is included within Accrued liabilities and other, while the remaining balance is included within Other long-term liabilities on the consolidated balance sheets. Warranty expense is recorded as a component of Cost of revenues in the consolidated statements of operations. Due to the magnitude of our automotive business, accrued warranty balance is primarily related to our automotive segment.

Stock-Based Compensation

We use the fair value method of accounting for our stock options and restricted stock units (“RSUs”) granted to employees and for our employee stock purchase plan (the “ESPP”) to measure the cost of employee services received in exchange for the stock-based awards. The fair value of stock option awards with only service and/or performance conditions is estimated on the grant or offering date using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The Black-Scholes option-pricing model requires inputs such as the risk-free interest rate, expected term and expected volatility. These inputs are subjective and generally require significant judgment. The fair value of RSUs is measured on the grant date based on the closing fair market value of our common stock. The resulting cost is recognized over the period during which an employee is required to provide service in exchange for the awards, usually the vesting period, which is generally four years for stock options and RSUs and six months for the ESPP. Stock-based compensation expense is recognized on a straight-line basis, net of actual forfeitures in the period.

For performance-based awards, stock-based compensation expense is recognized over the expected performance achievement period of individual performance milestones when the achievement of each individual performance milestone becomes probable.

As we accumulate additional employee stock-based awards data over time and as we incorporate market data related to our common stock, we may calculate significantly different volatilities and expected lives, which could materially impact the valuation of our stock-based awards and the stock-based compensation expense that we will recognize in future periods. Stock-based compensation expense is recorded in Cost of revenues, Research and development expense and Selling, general and administrative expense in the consolidated statements of operations.

Income Taxes

We are subject to taxes in the U.S. and in many foreign jurisdictions. Significant judgment is required in determining our provision for income taxes, our deferred tax assets and liabilities and any valuation allowance recorded against our net deferred tax assets. We make these estimates and judgments about our future taxable income that are based on assumptions that are consistent with our future plans. Tax laws, regulations and administrative practices may be subject to change due to economic or political conditions including fundamental changes to the tax laws applicable to corporate multinationals. The U.S., many countries in the European Union and a number of other countries are actively considering changes in this regard. As of December 31, 2022, we had recorded a full valuation allowance on our net U.S. deferred tax assets because we expect that it is more likely than not that our U.S. deferred tax assets will not be realized. Should the actual amounts differ from our estimates, the amount of our valuation allowance could be materially impacted.

Furthermore, significant judgment is required in evaluating our tax positions. In the ordinary course of business, there are many transactions and calculations for which the ultimate tax settlement is uncertain. As a result, we recognize the effect of this uncertainty on our tax attributes or taxes payable based on our estimates of the eventual outcome. These effects are recognized when, despite our belief that our tax return positions are supportable, we believe that it is more likely than not that some of those positions may not be fully sustained upon review by tax authorities. We are required to file income tax returns in the U.S. and various foreign jurisdictions, which requires us to interpret the applicable tax laws and regulations in effect in such jurisdictions. Such returns are subject to audit by the various federal, state and foreign taxing authorities, who may disagree with respect to our tax positions. We believe that our consideration is adequate for all open audit years based on our assessment of many factors, including past experience and interpretations of tax law. We review and update our estimates in light of changing facts and circumstances, such as the closing of a tax audit, the lapse of a statute of limitations or a change in estimate. To the extent that the final tax outcome of these matters differs from our expectations, such differences may impact income tax expense in the period in which such determination is made. The eventual impact on our income tax expense depends in part if we still have a valuation allowance recorded against our deferred tax assets in the period that such determination is made.

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Results of Operations

Revenues

Automotive & Services and Other Segment

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to cash and financing deliveries of new Model S, Model X, Semi, Model 3, and Model Y vehicles, including access to our FSD features, internet connectivity, free Supercharging programs and over-the-air software updates. These deliveries are vehicles that are not subject to lease accounting.

Automotive regulatory credits includes sales of regulatory credits to other automotive manufacturers. Our revenue from automotive regulatory credits is directly related to our new vehicle production, sales and pricing negotiated with our customers. We monetize them proactively as new vehicles are sold based on standing arrangements with buyers of such credits, typically as close as possible to the production and delivery of the vehicle or changes in regulation impacting the credits.

Automotive leasing revenue includes the amortization of revenue for vehicles under direct operating lease agreements. Additionally, automotive leasing revenue includes direct sales-type leasing programs where we recognize all revenue associated with the sales-type lease upon delivery to the customer.

Services and other revenue consists of non-warranty after-sales vehicle services and parts, paid Supercharging, sales of used vehicles, retail merchandise and vehicle insurance revenue.

2022 compared to 2021

Automotive sales revenue increased $23.09 billion, or 52%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to an increase of 347,024 Model 3 and Model Y deliveries, and an increase of 38,183 Model S and Model X deliveries year over year. This was achieved from production ramping of Model Y at Gigafactory Shanghai and the Fremont Factory as well as the start of production at Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg and Gigafactory Texas in 2022, at a higher combined average selling price from a higher proportion of Model Y sales despite a negative impact from the United States dollar strengthening against other foreign currencies in 2022 compared to the prior period. There was also an increase in production of Model S and Model X and an increase in the combined average selling price of Model S and Model X with a higher proportion of Model X sales, compared to the prior period as deliveries of the new versions of Model S and Model X began ramping in the second and fourth quarters of 2021, respectively. Further, during the fourth quarter of 2022, we recognized $324 million in revenue related to the general FSD feature release in North America.

Automotive regulatory credits revenue increased $311 million, or 21%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to changes in regulation which entitled us to additional consideration of $288 million in revenue in the first quarter of 2022 for credits sold previously, in the absence of which we had only an immaterial increase in automotive regulatory credits revenue.

Automotive leasing revenue increased $834 million, or 51%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. The change is primarily due to an increase in activities under our direct operating lease program as well as an increase in direct sales-type leasing revenue.

Services and other revenue increased $2.29 billion, or 60%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. The change is primarily due to increase in used vehicle revenue driven by increases in volume and average selling prices of used Tesla and non-Tesla vehicles, non-warranty maintenance services revenue as our fleet continues to grow, paid Supercharging revenue, insurance services revenue and retail merchandise revenue.

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Energy Generation and Storage Segment

Energy generation and storage revenue includes sales and leasing of solar energy generation and energy storage products, financing of solar energy generation products, services related to such products and sales of solar energy systems incentives.

2022 compared to 2021

Energy generation and storage revenue increased $1.12 billion, or 40%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to an increase in energy storage deployments of Megapack, Powerwall and higher average selling price of Megapack, as well as on solar cash and loan deployments driven by price increases in 2022.

Cost of Revenues and Gross Margin

Automotive & Services and Other Segment

Cost of automotive sales revenue includes direct and indirect materials, labor costs, manufacturing overhead, including depreciation costs of tooling and machinery, shipping and logistic costs, vehicle connectivity costs, allocations of electricity and infrastructure costs related to our free Supercharging programs and reserves for estimated warranty expenses. Cost of automotive sales revenues also includes adjustments to warranty expense and charges to write down the carrying value of our inventory when it exceeds its estimated net realizable value and to provide for obsolete and on-hand inventory in excess of forecasted demand.

Cost of automotive leasing revenue includes the depreciation of operating lease vehicles, cost of goods sold associated with direct sales-type leases and warranty expense related to leased vehicles. Cost of automotive leasing revenue also includes vehicle connectivity costs and allocations of electricity and infrastructure costs related to our Supercharger network for vehicles under our leasing programs.

Cost of services and other revenue includes costs associated with providing non-warranty after-sales services and parts, costs of paid Supercharging, cost of used vehicles including refurbishment costs, costs for retail merchandise, and costs to provide vehicle insurance.

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2022 compared to 2021

Cost of automotive sales revenue increased $17.18 billion, or 53%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, in line with the growth in revenue year over year, as discussed above. The average combined cost per unit of Model 3 and Model Y increased year over year due to rising raw material, logistics and warranty costs. There were also idle capacity charges of $306 million primarily related to the temporary suspension of production at Gigafactory Shanghai as well as the ramping up of production in Gigafactory Texas and our proprietary battery cells manufacturing during the year ended December 31, 2022. We had also incurred costs related to the ramp up of production in Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg during the year ended December 31, 2022. These increases were partially offset by a decrease in combined average Model S and Model X costs per unit driven by lower average cost for the new versions from ramping up production. Further, these increases in costs of revenue were positively impacted by the United States dollar strengthening against other foreign currencies in 2022 compared to the prior period.

Cost of automotive leasing revenue increased $531 million, or 54%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to an increase in cumulative vehicles under our direct operating lease program and an increase in direct sales-type leasing cost of revenues from more activities in the current year.

Cost of services and other revenue increased $1.97 billion, or 51%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. The change is primarily due to an increase in used vehicle cost of revenue driven by increases in volume and costs of used Tesla and non-Tesla vehicle sales, an increase in non-warranty maintenance service revenue, and an increase in costs of paid Supercharging, insurance services and retail merchandise.

Gross margin for total automotive decreased from 29.3% to 28.5% in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. This was driven by the changes in automotive sales revenue and cost of automotive sales revenue, partially offset by an increase in regulatory credits revenue, as discussed earlier.

Gross margin for total automotive & services and other segment decreased from 26.9% to 26.5% in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to the automotive gross margin decrease discussed above, partially offset by an improvement in our services and other gross margin. Additionally, services and other was a higher percentage of the segment gross margin during the year ended 2022 as compared to the prior year.

Energy Generation and Storage Segment

Cost of energy generation and storage revenue includes direct and indirect material and labor costs, warehouse rent, freight, warranty expense, other overhead costs and amortization of certain acquired intangible assets. Cost of energy generation and storage revenue also includes charges to write down the carrying value of our inventory when it exceeds its estimated net realizable value and to provide for obsolete and on-hand inventory in excess of forecasted demand. In agreements for solar energy system and PPAs where we are the lessor, the cost of revenue is primarily comprised of depreciation of the cost of leased solar energy systems, maintenance costs associated with those systems and amortization of any initial direct costs.

2022 compared to 2021

Cost of energy generation and storage revenue increased $703 million, or 24%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to increases in energy storage deployments of Megapack and Powerwall, as well as higher average cost of solar cash and loan deployments due to increased component costs.

Gross margin for energy generation and storage increased from -4.6% to 7.4% in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. This was driven by the growth in energy generation and storage revenue and cost of energy generation and storage revenue as discussed above. Additionally, there was a higher proportion of energy storage sales, which operated at a higher gross margin, within the segment.

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Research and Development Expense

Research and development (“R&D”) expenses consist primarily of personnel costs for our teams in engineering and research, manufacturing engineering and manufacturing test organizations, prototyping expense, contract and professional services and amortized equipment expense.

R&D expenses increased $482 million, or 19%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. The increase was primarily due to a $175 million increase in employee and labor related expenses, a $132 million increase in facilities, outside services, freight and depreciation expense, a $101 million increase in R&D expensed materials and an $87 million increase in stock-based compensation expense. These increases were to support our expanding product roadmap and technologies including our proprietary battery cells. Further, there were additional R&D expenses in the first quarter of 2022 as we were in the pre-production phase at Gigafactory Texas and started production at Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg only closer to the end of the first quarter of 2022.

R&D expenses as a percentage of revenue decreased from 5% to 4% in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. Our R&D expenses have decreased as a proportion of total revenues despite expanding product roadmap and technologies.

Selling, General and Administrative Expense

Selling, general and administrative (“SG&A”) expenses generally consist of personnel and facilities costs related to our stores, marketing, sales, executive, finance, human resources, information technology and legal organizations, as well as fees for professional and contract services and litigation settlements.

SG&A expenses decreased $571 million, or 13%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. This is primarily due to a decrease of $822 million in stock-based compensation expense, most of which is attributable to the lower stock-based compensation expense of $844 million on the 2018 CEO Performance Award. This was partially offset by the overall growth in stock-based compensation due to increased headcount. See Note 13, Equity Incentive Plans, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. There was also a decrease of $87 million in overall employee and labor related expenses driven by a decrease of $340 million of additional payroll tax due to our CEO's option exercises from the 2012 CEO Performance Award in 2021, partially offset by an increase in other employee and labor costs from increased headcount. These decreases were partially offset by an increase of $222 million in facilities-related expenses, and an increase of $117 million in professional services, sales and marketing activities and other costs.

SG&A expenses as a percentage of revenue decreased from 8% to 5% in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. Our SG&A expenses have decreased as a proportion of total revenues due to the decrease in expenses as discussed above, in addition to operational efficiencies.

Restructuring and Other Expense

During the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, we recorded $204 million and $101 million, respectively, of impairment losses on digital assets, respectively. During the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, we also realized gains of $64 million and $128 million, respectively, in connection with converting our holdings of digital assets into fiat currency. See Note 3, Digital Assets, Net, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details. Additionally, we recorded other expenses of $36 million during the second quarter of the year ended December 31, 2022, related to employee terminations.

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Interest Income

Interest income increased $241 million, or 430%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. This increase was primarily due to higher interest earned on our cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments during the year ended 2022 compared to the prior period. This was driven by an increase in our average cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments balance and rising interest rates.

Interest Expense

Interest expense decreased $180 million, or 49%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. This decrease was primarily due to the continued reduction in our overall debt balance offset by lower capitalized interest. See Note 11, Debt, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details.

Other (Expense) Income, Net

Other (expense) income, net, consists primarily of foreign exchange gains and losses related to our foreign currency-denominated monetary assets and liabilities. We expect our foreign exchange gains and losses will vary depending upon movements in the underlying exchange rates.

Other (expense) income, net, changed unfavorably by $178 million in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. The change is primarily due to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates.

Provision for Income Taxes

Our provision for income taxes increased by $433 million, or 62%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to the increase in our pre-tax income year over year.

Our effective tax rate decreased from 11% to 8% in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, primarily due to changes in mix of jurisdictional earnings.

See Note 14, Income Taxes, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details.

Net Income Attributable to Noncontrolling Interests and Redeemable Noncontrolling Interests

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Net income attributable to noncontrolling interests and redeemable noncontrolling interests decreased by $94 million, or 75%, in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. These changes were due to a decrease in allocations to financing fund investors.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

We expect to continue to generate net positive operating cash flow as we have done in the last four fiscal years. The cash we generate from our core operations enables us to fund ongoing operations and production, our research and development projects for new products and technologies including our proprietary battery cells, additional manufacturing ramps at existing manufacturing facilities such as the Fremont Factory, Gigafactory Nevada, Gigafactory Shanghai and Gigafactory New York, the ramp of Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg and Gigafactory Texas and the continued expansion of our retail and service locations, body shops, Mobile Service fleet, Supercharger network and energy product installation capabilities.

In addition, because a large portion of our future expenditures will be to fund our growth, we expect that if needed we will be able to adjust our capital and operating expenditures by operating segment. For example, if our near-term manufacturing operations decrease in scale or ramp more slowly than expected, including due to global economic or business conditions, we may choose to correspondingly slow the pace of our capital expenditures. Finally, we continually evaluate our cash needs and may decide it is best to raise additional capital or seek alternative financing sources to fund the rapid growth of our business, including through drawdowns on existing or new debt facilities or financing funds. Conversely, we may also from time to time determine that it is in our best interests to voluntarily repay certain indebtedness early.

Accordingly, we believe that our current sources of funds will provide us with adequate liquidity during the 12-month period following December 31, 2022, as well as in the long-term.

See the sections below for more details regarding the material requirements for cash in our business and our sources of liquidity to meet such needs.

Material Cash Requirements

From time to time in the ordinary course of business, we enter into agreements with vendors for the purchase of components and raw materials to be used in the manufacture of our products. However, due to contractual terms, variability in the precise growth curves of our development and production ramps, and opportunities to renegotiate pricing, we generally do not have binding and enforceable purchase orders under such contracts beyond the short-term, and the timing and magnitude of purchase orders beyond such period is difficult to accurately project.

As discussed in and subject to the considerations referenced in Part II, Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Management Opportunities, Challenges and Risks and 2023 Outlook—Cash Flow and Capital Expenditure Trends in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, we currently expect our capital expenditures to support our projects globally to be between $6.00 to $8.00 billion in 2023 and between $7.00 to $9.00 billion in each of the following two fiscal years. In connection with our operations at Gigafactory New York, we have an agreement to spend or incur $5.00 billion in combined capital, operational expenses, costs of goods sold and other costs in the State of New York through December 31, 2029 (pursuant to a deferral of our required timelines to meet such obligations that was granted in April 2021, and which was memorialized in an amendment to our agreement with the SUNY Foundation in August 2021). We also have an operating lease arrangement with the local government of Shanghai pursuant to which we are required to spend RMB 14.08 billion in capital expenditures at Gigafactory Shanghai by the end of 2023. For details regarding these obligations, refer to Note 15, Commitments and Contingencies, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

As of December 31, 2022, we and our subsidiaries had outstanding $2.06 billion in aggregate principal amount of indebtedness, of which $1.02 billion is scheduled to become due in the succeeding 12 months. As of December 31, 2022, our total minimum lease payments was $4.28 billion, of which $1.14 billion is due in the succeeding 12 months. For details regarding our indebtedness and lease obligations, refer to Note 11, Debt, and Note 12, Leases, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Sources and Conditions of Liquidity

Our sources to fund our material cash requirements are predominantly from our deliveries and servicing of new and used vehicles, sales and installations of our energy storage products and solar energy systems, proceeds from debt facilities and proceeds from equity offerings, when applicable.

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As of December 31, 2022, we had $16.25 billion and $5.93 billion of cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments, respectively. Balances held in foreign currencies had a U.S. dollar equivalent of $3.42 billion and consisted primarily of Chinese yuan, euros and British pounds. In addition, we had $2.42 billion of unused committed amounts under our credit facilities as of December 31, 2022, which included $2.27 billion under our Credit Agreement which was terminated in January 2023. Certain of such unused committed amounts are subject to satisfying specified conditions prior to draw-down (such as pledging to our lenders sufficient amounts of qualified receivables, inventories, leased vehicles and our interests in those leases, solar energy systems and the associated customer contracts or various other assets). In January 2023, we entered into an unsecured revolving credit facility providing for a commitment of up to $5.0 billion. For details regarding our indebtedness, refer to Note 11, Debt, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

We continue adapting our strategy to meet our liquidity and risk objectives, such as investing in U.S. government and other investments, to do more vertical integration, expand our product roadmap and provide financing options to our customers.

Summary of Cash Flows

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Our cash flows from operating activities are significantly affected by our cash investments to support the growth of our business in areas such as research and development and selling, general and administrative and working capital. Our operating cash inflows include cash from vehicle sales and related servicing, customer lease and financing payments, customer deposits, cash from sales of regulatory credits and energy generation and storage products. These cash inflows are offset by our payments to suppliers for production materials and parts used in our manufacturing process, operating expenses, operating lease payments and interest payments on our financings.

Net cash provided by operating activities increased by $3.23 billion to $14.72 billion during the year ended December 31, 2022 from $11.50 billion during the year ended December 31, 2021. This increase was primarily due to the increase in net income excluding non-cash expenses, gains and losses of $7.65 billion, offset by the overall increase in net operating assets and liabilities of $4.43 billion. The increase in our net operating assets and liabilities was mainly driven by a larger increase of inventory in the year ended December 31, 2022 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, partially offset by a larger increase of accounts payable and accrued liabilities, to support the ramp up in production at our factories and larger increases in other non-current assets and prepaid expenses and other current assets. Additionally, the increase in our net operating assets and other liabilities was partially offset by a larger increase in other long-term liabilities as compared to the prior year.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Cash flows from investing activities and their variability across each period related primarily to capital expenditures, which were $7.16 billion for the year ended December 31, 2022 and $6.48 billion for the year ended December 31, 2021, mainly for the expansions of Gigafactory Texas, the Fremont Factory, Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg, and Gigafactory Shanghai. We also purchased $5.84 billion of investments in the year ended December 31, 2022. Additionally, cash inflows related to sales of digital assets were $936 million in the year ended December 31, 2022, and net cash outflows related to digital assets were $1.23 billion in the year ended December 31, 2021 from purchases of digital assets for $1.50 billion offset by proceeds from sales of digital assets of $272 million.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net cash used in financing activities decreased by $1.68 billion to $3.53 billion during the year ended December 31, 2022 from $5.20 billion during the year ended December 31, 2021. The decrease was primarily due to a $1.92 billion decrease in repayments of convertible and other debt, net of proceeds from issuances of debt. See Note 11, Debt, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K for further details regarding our debt obligations.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

See Note 2, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, to the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. For discussion related to changes in financial condition and the results of operations for fiscal year 2019-related items, refer to Part II, Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for fiscal year 2020, which was filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on February 8, 2021.

Overview and 2021 Highlights

Our mission is to accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy. We design, develop, manufacture, lease and sell high-performance fully electric vehicles, solar energy generation systems and energy storage products. We also offer maintenance, installation, operation, financial and other services related to our products. Additionally, we are increasingly focused on products and services based on artificial intelligence, robotics and automation.

In 2021, we produced 930,422 vehicles and delivered 936,222 vehicles. We are currently focused on increasing vehicle production and capacity, improving and developing battery technologies, improving our FSD capabilities, increasing the affordability and efficiency of our vehicles and expanding our global infrastructure.

In 2021, we deployed 3.99 GWh of energy storage products and 345 megawatts of solar energy systems. We are currently focused on ramping production of energy storage products, improving our Solar Roof installation capability and efficiency, and increasing market share of retrofit and new build solar energy systems.

In 2021, we recognized total revenues of $53.82 billion, representing a 71% increase compared to the prior year. We continue to ramp production, build new manufacturing capacity and expand our operations to enable increased deliveries and deployments of our products and further revenue growth.

In 2021, our net income attributable to common stockholders was $5.52 billion, representing a favorable change of $4.80 billion, compared to the prior year. We continue to focus on improving our profitability through production and operational efficiencies.

We ended 2021 with $17.58 billion in cash and cash equivalents, representing a decrease of $1.81 billion from the end of 2020. Our cash flows provided by operating activities during 2021 was $11.50 billion, representing an increase of $5.55 billion compared to $5.94 billion during 2020, and capital expenditures amounted to $6.48 billion during 2021, compared to $3.16 billion during 2020. Sustained growth has allowed our business to generally fund itself, but we will continue investing in a number of capital-intensive projects in upcoming periods.

Management Opportunities, Challenges and Risks and 2022 Outlook

Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic

Beginning in the first quarter of 2021, there has been a trend in many parts of the world of increasing availability and administration of vaccines against COVID-19, as well as an easing of restrictions on social, business, travel and government activities and functions. On the other hand, infection rates and regulations continue to fluctuate in various regions and there are ongoing global impacts resulting from the pandemic, including challenges and increases in costs for logistics and supply chains, such as increased port congestion, intermittent supplier delays and a shortfall of semiconductor supply. We have also previously been affected by temporary manufacturing closures, employment and compensation adjustments, and impediments to administrative activities supporting our product deliveries and deployments.

Ultimately, we cannot predict the duration of the COVID-19 pandemic. We will continue to monitor macroeconomic conditions to remain flexible and to optimize and evolve our business as appropriate, and we will have to accurately project demand and infrastructure requirements globally and deploy our production, workforce and other resources accordingly.

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Automotive—Production

The following is a summary of the status of production of each of our announced vehicle models in production and under development, as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K:

We are focused on ramping all of our production vehicles to their installed production capacities as well as increasing capacity at our current factories. Our current production continues to be affected by the industry-wide semiconductor and other component shortages, requiring additional workaround manufacturing and production design solutions to be implemented which may be difficult to sustain. Builds of Model Y in Gigafactory Texas and equipment testing through the vehicle production process in Gigafactory Berlin started in late 2021. The next phase of production growth will depend on the testing and ramp at Gigafactory Berlin and Gigafactory Texas, as well as our ability to add to our available sources of battery cell supply by manufacturing our own cells that we are developing to have high-volume output, lower capital and production costs and longer range. Consistent with our approach of innovating manufacturing techniques at our new factories, we expect as well to pioneer new methods related to the mass production of these cells and our unique structural battery pack concept. Our goals are to improve vehicle performance, decrease production costs and increase affordability.

However, these plans are subject to uncertainties inherent in establishing and ramping manufacturing operations, which may be exacerbated by the number of concurrent international projects, any industry-wide component constraints which may increase the number of manufacturing and production design workaround solutions required, labor shortages and any future impact from events outside of our control such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, we must meet ambitious technological targets with our plans for battery cells as well as for iterative manufacturing and design improvements for our vehicles with each new factory.

Automotive—Demand and Sales

Our cost reduction efforts and additional localized procurement and manufacturing are key to our vehicles’ affordability, and for example, have allowed us to competitively price our vehicles in China. In addition to ramping production in 2022, we will also continue to generate demand and brand awareness by improving our vehicles’ performance and functionality, including through products based on artificial intelligence such as Autopilot and FSD, and other software features. Moreover, we expect to continue to benefit from a spike in demand in the automotive industry generally, as well as ongoing electrification of the automotive sector and increasing environmental awareness.

However, we operate in a cyclical industry that is sensitive to trade, environmental and political uncertainty, all of which may also be compounded by any future global impact from the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, as additional competitors enter the marketplace and help bring the world closer to sustainable transportation, we will have to continue to execute well to maintain our momentum.

Automotive—Deliveries and Customer Infrastructure

As our deliveries increase, we must work constantly to prevent our vehicle delivery capability from becoming a bottleneck on our total deliveries. Increasing the exports of vehicles manufactured at Gigafactory Shanghai has been effective in mitigating the strain on our deliveries in markets outside of the United States, and we expect to benefit further from situating additional factories closer to local markets. As we expand our manufacturing operations globally, we will have to continue to increase and staff our delivery, servicing and charging infrastructure accordingly, maintain our vehicle reliability and optimize our Supercharger locations to ensure cost effectiveness and customer satisfaction. In particular, we remain focused on increasing the capability and efficiency of our servicing operations.

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Energy Generation and Storage Demand, Production and Deployment

The long-term success of this business is dependent upon increasing margins through greater volumes. We continue to increase the production of our energy storage products to meet high levels of demand, including beginning construction of our Megafactory in Lathrop, California, but such production is also sensitive to global component constraints. For Megapack, energy storage deployments can vary meaningfully quarter to quarter depending on the timing of specific project milestones. For Powerwall, better availability and growing grid stability concerns drive higher customer interest, and we are emphasizing cross-selling with our residential solar energy products. We remain committed to growing our retrofit solar energy business by offering a low-cost and simplified online ordering experience. In addition, we continue to improve our installation capabilities and price efficiencies for Solar Roof by on-boarding and training new installers, as well as collaborating with real estate developers and builders on new homes to reduce installation time and costs. As these product lines grow, we will have to maintain adequate battery cell supply for our energy storage products and hire additional personnel, particularly skilled electricians, to support the ramp of Solar Roof.

Cash Flow and Capital Expenditure Trends

Our capital expenditures are typically difficult to project beyond the short term given the number and breadth of our core projects at any given time, and may further be impacted by uncertainties in future global market conditions. We are simultaneously ramping new products in the new Model S and Model X, Megapack and Solar Roof, ramping manufacturing facilities on three continents and piloting the development and manufacture of new battery cell technologies, and the pace of our capital spend may vary depending on overall priority among projects, the pace at which we meet milestones, production adjustments to and among our various products, increased capital efficiencies and the addition of new projects. Owing and subject to the foregoing as well as the pipeline of announced projects under development and all other continuing infrastructure growth, we currently expect our capital expenditures to be between $5.00 to $7.00 billion in 2022 and each of the next two fiscal years.

Our business has recently been consistently generating cash flow from operations in excess of our level of capital spend, and with better working capital management resulting in shorter days sales outstanding than days payable outstanding, our sales growth is also facilitating positive cash generation. On the other hand, we are likely to see heightened levels of capital expenditures during certain periods depending on the specific pace of our capital-intensive projects and rising material prices and increasing supply chain and labor expenses resulting from changes in global trade conditions and labor availability associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, as our stock price has significantly increased, we have seen higher levels of early conversions of “in-the-money” convertible senior notes, which obligates us to deliver cash and or shares pursuant to the terms of those notes. Overall, we expect our ability to be self-funding to continue as long as macroeconomic factors support current trends in our sales.

Operating Expense Trends

As long as we see expanding sales, and excluding the potential impact of macroeconomic conditions including increased labor costs and impairment charges on certain assets as explained below, we generally expect operating expenses relative to revenues to decrease as we continue to increase operational efficiency and process automation. We expect operating expenses to grow in 2022 as we are expanding our operations globally.

In the first quarter of 2021, we invested an aggregate $1.50 billion in bitcoin. We believe in the long-term potential of digital assets both as an investment and also as a liquid alternative to cash. As with any investment and consistent with how we manage fiat-based cash and cash-equivalent accounts, we may increase or decrease our holdings of digital assets at any time based on the needs of the business and our view of market and environmental conditions. Digital assets are considered indefinite-lived intangible assets under applicable accounting rules. Accordingly, any decrease in their fair values below our carrying values for such assets at any time subsequent to their acquisition will require us to recognize impairment charges, whereas we may make no upward revisions for any market price increases until a sale. For any digital assets held now or in the future, these charges may negatively impact our profitability in the periods in which such impairments occur even if the overall market values of these assets increase. For example, in the year ended December 31, 2021, we recorded approximately $101 million of impairment losses resulting from changes to the carrying value of our bitcoin and gains of $128 million on certain sales of bitcoin by us.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

The consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. (“GAAP”). The preparation of the consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues, costs and expenses and related disclosures. We base our estimates on historical experience, as appropriate, and on various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Changes in the accounting estimates are reasonably likely to occur from period to period. Accordingly, actual results could differ significantly from the estimates made by our management. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. To the extent that there are material differences between these estimates and actual results, our future financial statement presentation, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows may be affected.

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Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been uncertainty and disruption in the global economy and financial markets. The estimates used for, but not limited to, determining significant economic incentive for resale value guarantee arrangements, sales return reserves, the collectability of accounts receivable, inventory valuation, fair value of long-lived assets, goodwill, fair value of financial instruments, fair value and residual value of operating lease vehicles and solar energy systems subject to leases could be impacted. We have assessed the impact and are not aware of any specific events or circumstances that required an update to our estimates and assumptions or materially affected the carrying value of our assets or liabilities as of the date of issuance of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. These estimates may change as new events occur and additional information is obtained. Actual results could differ materially from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

Revenue Recognition

Automotive Sales without Resale Value Guarantee

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to deliveries of new vehicles and pay-per-use charges, and specific other features and services that meet the definition of a performance obligation under ASC 606, including access to our Supercharger network, internet connectivity, FSD features and over-the-air software updates. We recognize revenue on automotive sales upon delivery to the customer, which is when the control of a vehicle transfers. Payments are typically received at the point control transfers or in accordance with payment terms customary to the business. Other features and services such as access to our Supercharger network, internet connectivity and over-the-air software updates are provisioned upon control transfer of a vehicle and recognized over time on a straight-line basis as we have a stand-ready obligation to deliver such services to the customer. We recognize revenue related to these other features and services over the performance period, which is generally the estimated useful life of the vehicle. Revenue related to FSD features is recognized when functionality is delivered to the customer. For our obligations related to automotive sales, we estimate standalone selling price by considering costs used to develop and deliver the service, third-party pricing of similar options and other information that may be available.

At the time of revenue recognition, we reduce the transaction price and record a sales return reserve against revenue for estimated variable consideration related to future product returns. Such return rate estimates are based on historical experience and are immaterial in all periods presented. In addition, any fees that are paid or payable by us to a customer’s lender when we arrange the financing are recognized as an offset against automotive sales revenue.

Costs to obtain a contract mainly relate to commissions paid to our sales personnel for the sale of vehicles. Commissions are not paid on other obligations such as access to our Supercharger network, internet connectivity, FSD features and over-the-air software updates. As our contract costs related to automotive sales are typically fulfilled within one year, the costs to obtain a contract are expensed as incurred. Amounts billed to customers related to shipping and handling are classified as automotive sales revenue, and we have elected to recognize the cost for freight and shipping when control over vehicles, parts or accessories have transferred to the customer as an expense in cost of automotive sales revenue. Our policy is to exclude taxes collected from a customer from the transaction price of automotive contracts.

Automotive Sales with Resale Value Guarantee or a Buyback Option

We offer resale value guarantees or similar buy-back terms to certain international customers who purchase vehicles and who finance their vehicles through one of our specified commercial banking partners. We also offer resale value guarantees in connection with automotive sales to certain leasing partners. Under these programs, we receive full payment for the vehicle sales price at the time of delivery and our counterparty has the option of selling their vehicle back to us during the guarantee period, which currently is generally at the end of the term of the applicable loan or financing program, for a pre-determined resale value.

We recognize revenue when control transfers upon delivery to customers in accordance with ASC 606 as a sale with a right of return when we do not believe the customer has a significant economic incentive to exercise the resale value guarantee provided to them at contract inception. The process to determine whether there is a significant economic incentive includes a comparison of a vehicle’s estimated market value at the time the option is exercisable with the guaranteed resale value to determine the customer’s economic incentive to exercise. The performance obligations and the pattern of recognizing automotive sales with resale value guarantees are consistent with automotive sales without resale value guarantees with the exception of our estimate for sales return reserve. Sales return reserves for automotive sales with resale value guarantees are estimated based on historical experience plus consideration for expected future market values. On a quarterly basis, we assess the estimated market values of vehicles sold with resale value guarantees to determine whether there have been changes to the likelihood of future product returns. As we accumulate more data related to the resale values of our vehicles or as market conditions change, there may be material changes to their estimated values.

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Inventory Valuation

Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Cost is computed using standard cost for vehicles and energy storage products, which approximates actual cost on a first-in, first-out basis. In addition, cost for solar energy systems is recorded using actual cost. We record inventory write-downs for excess or obsolete inventories based upon assumptions about current and future demand forecasts. If our inventory on-hand is in excess of our future demand forecast, the excess amounts are written-off.

We also review our inventory to determine whether its carrying value exceeds the net amount realizable upon the ultimate sale of the inventory. This requires us to determine the estimated selling price of our vehicles less the estimated cost to convert the inventory on-hand into a finished product. Once inventory is written-down, a new, lower cost basis for that inventory is established and subsequent changes in facts and circumstances do not result in the restoration or increase in that newly established cost basis.

Should our estimates of future selling prices or production costs change, additional and potentially material write-downs may be required. A small change in our estimates may result in a material charge to our reported financial results.

Warranties

We provide a manufacturer’s warranty on all new and used vehicles and a warranty on the installation and components of the energy generation and storage systems we sell for periods typically between 10 to 25 years. We accrue a warranty reserve for the products sold by us, which includes our best estimate of the projected costs to repair or replace items under warranties and recalls if identified. These estimates are based on actual claims incurred to date and an estimate of the nature, frequency and costs of future claims. These estimates are inherently uncertain given our relatively short history of sales, and changes to our historical or projected warranty experience may cause material changes to the warranty reserve in the future. The warranty reserve does not include projected warranty costs associated with our vehicles subject to operating lease accounting and our solar energy systems under lease contracts or PPAs, as the costs to repair these warranty claims are expensed as incurred. The portion of the warranty reserve expected to be incurred within the next 12 months is included within Accrued liabilities and other, while the remaining balance is included within Other long-term liabilities on the consolidated balance sheets. Warranty expense is recorded as a component of Cost of revenues in the consolidated statements of operations. Due to the magnitude of our automotive business, accrued warranty balance is primarily related to our automotive segment.

Stock-Based Compensation

We use the fair value method of accounting for our stock options and restricted stock units (“RSUs”) granted to employees and for our employee stock purchase plan (the “ESPP”) to measure the cost of employee services received in exchange for the stock-based awards. The fair value of stock option awards with only service and/or performance conditions is estimated on the grant or offering date using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The Black-Scholes option-pricing model requires inputs such as the risk-free interest rate, expected term and expected volatility. These inputs are subjective and generally require significant judgment. The fair value of RSUs is measured on the grant date based on the closing fair market value of our common stock. The resulting cost is recognized over the period during which an employee is required to provide service in exchange for the awards, usually the vesting period, which is generally four years for stock options and RSUs and six months for the ESPP. Stock-based compensation expense is recognized on a straight-line basis, net of actual forfeitures in the period.

For performance-based awards, stock-based compensation expense is recognized over the expected performance achievement period of individual performance milestones when the achievement of each individual performance milestone becomes probable. For performance-based awards with a vesting schedule based entirely on the attainment of both performance and market conditions, stock-based compensation expense associated with each tranche is recognized over the longer of (i) the expected achievement period for the operational milestone for such tranche and (ii) the expected achievement period for the related market capitalization milestone determined on the grant date, beginning at the point in time when the relevant operational milestone is considered probable of being achieved. If such operational milestone becomes probable any time after the grant date, we will recognize a cumulative catch-up expense from the grant date to that point in time. If the related market capitalization milestone is achieved earlier than its expected achievement period and the achievement of the related operational milestone, then the stock-based compensation expense will be recognized over the expected achievement period for the operational milestone, which may accelerate the rate at which such expense is recognized. The fair value of such awards is estimated on the grant date using Monte Carlo simulations.

As we accumulate additional employee stock-based awards data over time and as we incorporate market data related to our common stock, we may calculate significantly different volatilities and expected lives, which could materially impact the valuation of our stock-based awards and the stock-based compensation expense that we will recognize in future periods. Stock-based compensation expense is recorded in Cost of revenues, Research and development expense and Selling, general and administrative expense in the consolidated statements of operations.

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Income Taxes

We are subject to taxes in the U.S. and in many foreign jurisdictions. Significant judgment is required in determining our provision for income taxes, our deferred tax assets and liabilities and any valuation allowance recorded against our net deferred tax assets. We make these estimates and judgments about our future taxable income that are based on assumptions that are consistent with our future plans. Tax laws, regulations and administrative practices may be subject to change due to economic or political conditions including fundamental changes to the tax laws applicable to corporate multinationals. The U.S., many countries in the European Union and a number of other countries are actively considering changes in this regard. As of December 31, 2021, we had recorded a full valuation allowance on our net U.S. deferred tax assets because we expect that it is more likely than not that our U.S. deferred tax assets will not be realized. Should the actual amounts differ from our estimates, the amount of our valuation allowance could be materially impacted.

Furthermore, significant judgment is required in evaluating our tax positions. In the ordinary course of business, there are many transactions and calculations for which the ultimate tax settlement is uncertain. As a result, we recognize the effect of this uncertainty on our tax attributes or taxes payable based on our estimates of the eventual outcome. These effects are recognized when, despite our belief that our tax return positions are supportable, we believe that it is more likely than not that some of those positions may not be fully sustained upon review by tax authorities. We are required to file income tax returns in the U.S. and various foreign jurisdictions, which requires us to interpret the applicable tax laws and regulations in effect in such jurisdictions. Such returns are subject to audit by the various federal, state and foreign taxing authorities, who may disagree with respect to our tax positions. We believe that our consideration is adequate for all open audit years based on our assessment of many factors, including past experience and interpretations of tax law. We review and update our estimates in light of changing facts and circumstances, such as the closing of a tax audit, the lapse of a statute of limitations or a change in estimate. To the extent that the final tax outcome of these matters differs from our expectations, such differences may impact income tax expense in the period in which such determination is made. The eventual impact on our income tax expense depends in part if we still have a valuation allowance recorded against our deferred tax assets in the period that such determination is made.

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Results of Operations

Revenues

Automotive & Services and Other Segment

Automotive sales revenue includes revenues related to cash deliveries of new Model S, Model X, Model 3 and Model Y vehicles, including access to our Supercharger network, internet connectivity, FSD features and over-the-air software updates. Cash deliveries are vehicles that are not subject to lease accounting.

Automotive regulatory credits includes sales of regulatory credits to other automotive manufacturers. Our revenue from automotive regulatory credits is directly related to our new vehicle production, sales and pricing negotiated with our customers. We monetize them proactively as new vehicles are sold based on standing arrangements with buyers of such credits, typically as close as possible to the production and delivery of the vehicle or changes in regulation impacting the credits.

Automotive leasing revenue includes the amortization of revenue for vehicles under direct operating lease agreements as well as those sold with resale value guarantees accounted for as operating leases under lease accounting. Additionally, automotive leasing revenue includes direct sales-type leasing programs where we recognize all revenue associated with the sales-type lease upon delivery to the customer.

Services and other revenue consists of non-warranty after-sales vehicle services, sales of used vehicles, retail merchandise, sales by our acquired subsidiaries to third party customers and vehicle insurance revenue.

2021 compared to 2020

Automotive sales revenue increased $19.52 billion, or 79%, in the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, primarily due to an increase of 433,815 Model 3 and Model Y cash deliveries year over year from production ramping at both Gigafactory Shanghai and the Fremont Factory at a slightly higher combined average selling price from a higher proportion of Model Y sales offset by regional sales mix. Additionally, we had a $365 million net release of our sales return reserve on vehicles sold with resale value guarantees, which increased our automotive sales revenue, due to actual return rates being lower than expected and increases in resale values of our vehicles in 2021. The increases in automotive sales revenue were partially offset by a decrease of 28,819 Model S and Model X cash deliveries at a higher combined average selling price as deliveries of the new versions of Model S and Model X only began ramping in the second and fourth quarters of 2021, respectively.

Automotive regulatory credits revenue decreased $115 million, or 7%, in the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, primarily due to changes in regulation which entitled us to additional credits in the prior year and changes in pricing in certain regions.

Automotive leasing revenue increased $590 million, or 56%, in the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, primarily due to an increase in cumulative vehicles under our direct operating lease program and an increase in direct sales-type leasing revenue as we have a full year of sales in 2021 since we began offering the program during the third quarter of 2020. These increases were partially offset by the decrease in automotive leasing revenue associated with our resale value guarantee leasing programs accounted for as operating leases as those portfolios have declined.

Services and other revenue increased $1.50 billion, or 65%, in the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, primarily due to an increase in used vehicle revenue driven by increases in volume and average selling prices of used vehicles, non-warranty maintenance services revenue as our fleet continues to grow and retail merchandise revenue.

Energy Generation and Storage Segment

Energy generation and storage revenue includes sales and leasing of solar energy generation and energy storage products, services related to such products and sales of solar energy systems incentives.

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2021 compared to 2020

Energy generation and storage revenue increased by $795 million, or 40%, in the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, primarily due to an increase in deployments of Megapack, solar cash and loan jobs, Powerwall and Solar Roof, partially offset by a decrease in Powerpack deployments as we phase out the product following the introduction of Megapack.

Cost of Revenues and Gross Margin